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Figure 1.
Means and standard error for insects and plastic polymers with multiple results reported. Individual values are shown by insect abbreviations. Values above 8 mg/gram live weight day show measured values. AG = Wax moth larvae (Achroia grisella), CC = Rice moth larvae (Corcyra cephalonica), GB = Cricket adults (Gryllus bimaculatus), GM = Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella), PD = Darkling beetle larvae (Plesiophthalmus davidis), TM = Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor), TO = Dark mealworm larve (Tenebrio obscures), ZA = Superworm larvae (Zophobas atratus).
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Figure 2.
a, b. Gryllus bimaculatus feeding on polyurethane foam. The holes, valleys and hollows formed in the PUF blocks showed that the cricket used PUF as their diet.
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Figure 3.
Cricket performance through time with PUF or grains as feed. (a) Percentage fecula weight of crickets. (b) Mean weight of crickets. (c) Percentage mortality for both treated and untreated crickets.
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Figure 4.
Aspergillus flavus G10 (HMAS 101889). (a) Alimentary canal of the dissected cricket (Gryllus bimaculatus). (b) Culture on MEA (20 days). (c) Hyphae. (d) Conidiogenesis (light microscope). (e–h) Conidiogenesis and conidia (SEM). Scale bars e = 50 µm, f = 20 µm, g = 10 µm, h = 3 µm.
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Ref. # Polymer type Insect type Individual live
weight (mg)Insect total live
weight (mg)Test duration
(d)Consumpt. (mg) /
live weight (g) / day[20] PS foam Land snails Achatina fulica 26 080 26 080 28 0.024 [10] PE Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 85 8 500 38 0.06 [10] PE Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 85 8 500 38 0.27 This study PU foam Gryllus bimaculatus cricket adults 650 32 500 18 0.28 [21] tire crumb Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70* 17 500 21 0.57 [22] PS plate Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 30 3 000 21 0.63 [23] PE foam Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 75 7 500 40 0.64 [10] PE Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 1 000 4 0.85 [24] PS (PE PS mix) Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 80 8 000 32 0.88 [21] v-SBR Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70* 17 500 21 1.00 [25] PS foam Superworm larvae (Zophobas atratus) From text ---> 1.04 [23] PE foam Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 75 22 500 60 1.09 [26] PS foam Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70* 35 000 30 1.14 [27] PS foam + B Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 12 000 21 1.19 [22] PS powder Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 30 3 000 21 1.27 [23] PS foam Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 75 22 500 60 1.33 [25] PS foam Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From text ---> 1.40 [28] PS Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 32 1.55 [29] PS foam Superworm larvae (Zophobas atratus) 400 96 000 28 1.45 [30] PE micro Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70* 33 250 28 1.72 [25] PS foam + B Superworm larvae (Zophobas atratus) From text ---> 1.79 [28] PS Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 32 1.83 [27] PE + B Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 12 450 21 1.87 [24] PS foam Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 80 8 000 32 1.88 [28] PS Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 79 7 900 32 1.90 [28] PS Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 32 1.96 [24] PE (PE PS mix) Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 80 8 000 32 2.00 [22] PS sheet Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 30 3 000 21 2.00 [25] PS foam + sugar Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From text ---> 2.03 [28] PS Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 79 7 900 32 2.03 [31] PLA plates Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 72 1 440 21 2.08 [31] PVC pieces Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 64 1 280 21 2.12 [25] PS foam + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From text ---> 2.14 [28] PS Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 79 7 900 32 2.15 [28] PS Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 79 7 900 32 2.15 [28] PS + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 32 2.16 [30] PE micro Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70* 33 600 28 2.23 [27] PS foam + wax Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 13 200 21 2.27 [32] PS foam + cofeed Superworm larvae (Zophobas atratus) 129 12 900 87 2.35 [22] PS foam Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 30 3 000 21 2.38 [28] PS Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 32 2.44 [28] PS + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 32 2.56 [30] PS micro Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70* 33 600 28 2.60 [30] PVC micro Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70* 33 250 28 2.79 [28] PS Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 32 2.8 [24] PE Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 80 8 000 32 2.88 [33] PS foam Superworm larvae (Zophobas atratus) 469 18 760 20 2.90 [28] PS Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 79 7 900 32 3.04 [28] PS + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 24 3.04 [25] PS foam + sugar Superworm larvae (Zophobas atratus) From text ---> 3.19 [30] PE micro Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70* 29 050 28 3.20 [24] PS + half B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 80 8 000 32 3.38 [31] PS plates Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70 1 400 21 3.64 [34] PS foam Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 63 8 000 31 3.86 [30] PS micro Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70* 33 600 28 3.86 [28] PS + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 24 3.92 [24] PE + half B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 80 8 000 32 4.00 [28] PS + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 24 4.12 [28] PS + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 32 4.15 [30] PVC micro Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70* 33 425 28 4.27 [28] PS + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 32 4.28 [30] PVC micro Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70* 28 350 28 4.28 [32] PE Superworm larvae (Zophobas atratus) 137 13 700 33 4.28 [32] PE + cofeed Superworm larvae (Zophobas atratus) 129 12 900 87 4.43 [32] PS foam Superworm larvae (Zophobas atratus) 137 13 700 33 4.49 [33] PS foam Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 46 2 300 20 4.80 [27] PE + wax Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 12 450 21 4.82 [28] PS + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 24 4.85 [28] PS + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 24 4.90 [30] PS micro Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) 70* 29 400 28 4.92 [34] PS foam Dark mealworm larve (Tenebrio obscurus) 63 8 000 31 5.14 [32] PE + cofeed Superworm larvae (Zophobas atratus) 137 13 700 33 5.25 [28] PS + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 32 5.31 [10] PE Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 1 000 3.71 5.37 [32] PS foam + cofeed Superworm larvae (Zophobas atratus) 137 13 700 33 5.61 [10] PE Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 1 000 9 5.67 [28] PS Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 35 5.92 [27] PS foam Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 6 600 21 6.35 [28] PS + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 24 7.17 [28] PS + B Yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) From table ---> 35 7.64 [27] PE Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 10 800 21 8.60 [10] PE Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 1 000 0.71 9.18 [35] PS foam Darkling beetle larvae (Plesiophthalmus davidis) 130** 14 18.8 [36] PE Wax moth larvae (Achroia grisella) 52 5 200 8 27.0 [36] PE + WC Wax moth larvae (Achroia grisella) 56 5 600 8 39.1 [37] PE Rice moth larvae (Corcyra cephalonica) 12** 300 20 41.7 [36] WC Wax moth larvae (Achroia grisella) 56 5 600 8 50.2 [38] PE Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 32 3 200 0.5 57.5 [39] PE Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 1 500 7 81.4 [39] PE UV trt Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 15 000 7 240 [39] WC Wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella) 100* 1 500 7 394 Table 1.
Rates of plastic polymer degradation from published sources and from this study. PS = polystyrene, PE = polyethylene, PVC = poly vinyl chloride, PU = Polyester polyurethane, tire crumb = vulcanized natural latex rubber, v-SBR = vulcanized butadiene-styrene elastomer, WC = honey bee wax comb, micro = microparticulate. Food additives and mixtures are indicated; B = bran. * weight from other studies. ** weight is our estimate. One study included ultraviolet light-pre-treated polymer, and its result is highlighted in red. Where rates in these units were reported in original, they are listed directly here. Reference numbering is contiguous with text.
Figures
(4)
Tables
(1)