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Types of treatment object Lipid lowering technology Processing parameters Implications Physicochemical property Nutritional ingredients Reference RFRS pork sausage High pressure process 200 MPa, 3 min ↑Tenderness, WHC
↓ Hardness↑Moisture
↓Fat, salt[26] Pork sausage High pressure process 200 MPa, 2 min, 10 °C ↑Hardness, springiness, chewiness, L* color parameter, pH, WHC
↓a* and b*color parameters, CL↑Moisture
↓Fat[22] RFRS pork sausage High pressure process 300 MPa; 10 min ↑WHC
↓Gel strength, the water relaxation time of the gel↓Fat, salt [23] Dry-cured fermented sausage High pressure process 600 MPa; 5 min ↑L* and b* color parameters, texture
↔a* color parameter, edible safety↑Moisture, protein
↔Lipid oxidation, microbial growth
↓Fat, caloric[31] Low-fat pork emulsion sausage Sonication Sonication frequency: 20 kHz; time: 30 min; powder: 200 W ↑WHC, hardness, cohesiveness, chewiness, emulsion stability
↓CL↓Expressible fat [32] Frankfurter Sonication Sonication frequency: 20 kHz; time: 30 min; amplitude: 60 μm; powder: 30-40 W ↑L* and b* color parameters
↓CL, hardness↑Protein content, UFA, dietary fiber
↓Fat, SFA[8] Table 1.
Effects of physical lipid-lowering technology on the quality of meat products.
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Types of fat
substitutesTypes of meat products Main replacement ingredients Replacement ratio of animal fat (%) Substitution form Implications Physicochemical property Nutritional Sensorial Reference Protein matrix fat substitute Pork sausage WPI 10%, SDS 0.06% 75 Gel ↑Viscosity, hardness
↓CL↑Moisture − [35] Protein matrix fat substitute Beef
sausageBeef fat 10%, MWP 5% 50 Emulsion ↑Emulsion stability, processing yield, a* and b* color parameters
↓Hardness, chewiness, adhesiveness, lipid oxidation↑Protein
↓Fat, energy↔Consumer
acceptability[38] Protein matrix fat substitute Frankfurter Hydrolyzed collagen 50% 50 Direct incorporation ↑WHC, hardness, chewiness ↑Protein, minerals
↓Fat↑Consumer acceptability [37] Carbohydrate matrix fat substitutes Pork sausage Regenerated cellulose fiber 0.8% 33 Direct incorporation ↑Emulsion stability, L* color parameter, viscosity (raw meat batter), hardness, gumminess, chewiness
↓Lipid oxidation↓Fat ↑Consumer acceptability [40] Carbohydrate matrix fat substitutes Beef burger Hydrated wheat fiber 4.7% 34 Direct incorporation ↑L* and b* color parameters
↓CL, hardness, elasticity, chewiness↑Moisture
↓Calorie values, protein, fat↔Consumer acceptability [41] Carbohydrate matrix fat substitutes Salami MCC/RS/OF 2% 25 Direct incorporation ↑Antioxidant characteristic, hardness, chewiness (MCC and OF)
↔Appearance, color, weight loss, pH
↓Aw↑Lactic acid bacteria count (MCC)
↓Fat, salt↔Consumer
acceptability[43] Lipid matrix fat substitute Pork sausage Sunflower oil 5%−20%
Gelator: Glyceryl monoglyceride 5%50 Oleogel ↑Hardness, L* color parameter
↓pH↑PUFA, MUFA
↓Fat, SFA↑Consumer acceptability [46] Lipid matrix fat substitute Pork sausage Sunflower oil 25%, pork skin 37.5% 50 Oleogel ↑Emulsion stability, hardness, chewiness
↓CL↑MUFA
↓Linoleic acid, cholesterol, energy, fat, SFA↔Consumer
acceptability[47] Lipid matrix fat substitute Pork sausage Linseed oil, γ-oryzanol: β-sitosterol = 3:22
Gelator: Beeswax 8%40 Oleogel ↑L* and a* color parameters
↓Hardness↑Moisture, MUFA, PUFA
↓Fat, SFA↔Consumer
acceptability[48] Lipid matrix fat substitute Frankfurter Linseed oil
Gelator: Beeswax 8%25 or 50 Oleogel ↑L* and b* color parameters, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness
↓a* color parameter↑PUFA
↓Fat, SFA, cholesterol, AI, TI, ω-6/ω-3 ratio↓Consumer acceptability [2] lipid matrix fat substitute Pork burger Curcumin (0.2 g/100 g oleogel), oleogel (olive oil, linseed oil etc.)
6.0 g/100 g100 Oleogel ↑Hardness
↓Lipid oxidation↑PUFA, MUFA ↑Consumer acceptability [49] Lipid matrix fat substitute Beef burger Soybean oil 0−6%
Gelator: Ethyl cellulose 2%, adipic acid 4%50 Oleogel ↑Hardness, OBC
↓L* and a* color parameters↓Fat ↑Consumer acceptability [50] Lipid matrix fat substitute Beef burger Sesame oil 15 g
Gelator: Beeswax 10%25−50 Oleogel ↑Cooking shrinkage, L* and b* color parameters
↓Hardness, gumminess, chewiness, lipid oxidation, CL↑UFA
↓Fat, acid value↑Consumer acceptability [51] Lipid matrix fat substitute Beef patty Canola oil (2%, 4%, 6%)
Gelator: Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose 1%50 Oleogel ↑Firmness, work of shear, CL
↓Lipid oxidation↑UFA
↓SFA↑Consumer acceptability [54] Lipid matrix fat substitute Beef heart patties Rapeseed oil
Gelator: Beeswax 10%100 Oleogel ↑L* color parameter, melting points, melting enthalpies, lipid and protein oxidation
↓Hardness, gumminess, lipid and protein oxidation↑PUFA, moisture
↓Fat, SFA− [61] Compound matrix fat substitute Frankfurter Rye bran addition
(5 g/100 g) with collagen
(1 g/100 g)74 Direct incorporation ↑Hardness, firmness ↓Fat ↑Consumer acceptability, spiciness [63] Compound matrix fat substitute Beef batter Pea protein isolate 24%, agar-agar 1.5%, NaCl 2% 100 Gel ↑L* and b* color parameters
↓a* color parameter, CL, chewiness, hardness, lipid oxidation↑Moisture, protein, dietary fiber
↓Fat, energy− [65] Compound matrix fat substitute Chicken sausage Chicken skin 1.5%, water 2.5%, wheat fiber 1% 25 Direct incorporation ↑Hardness, L* color parameter
↓Tenderness, cooking yield, b* color parameter↑Moisture
↓Fat− [64] Compound matrix fat substitute Chicken sausage Perilla-canola oil 50%, PGPR 3.2%, soy protein isolate 4.48%, inulin 14% 100 Emulsion ↑Emulsion stability, L* color parameter, whiteness, hardness
↓CL↑Moisture, protein, carbohydrate, PUFA
↓Fat, energy, ω-6/ω-3 ratio− [68] Compound matrix fat substitute Pork sausage Sunflower oil 50%, xanthan gum 1%, succinylated chicken liver protein 2% 40 Direct incorporation/Emulsion ↑Gel strength, whiteness, emulsion stability, WHC, heating stability
↓Lipid oxidation, CL↑PUFA
↓FA− [66] Compound matrix fat substitute Chicken batter Inner water phase (W1): MKB extract and NaCl 0.6% (w/w)
Oil phase (O): soybean oil 35%, PGPR 6%
Outer water phase (W2): whey protein concentrate 6% and NaCl 0.6%
(W1:O:W2 = 7:7:6)100 Double emulsion ↑Emulsion stability, cooking yield, hardness, chewiness, L* color parameter
↓Shrinkage, a* color parameter, pH, lipid oxidation↑Moisture
↓Fat− [70] Compound matrix fat substitute Frankfurter Olive oil 6.5%, chia flour 10% 100 Direct incorporation/Emulsion/Emulsion gel ↑Hardness, chewiness, emulsion stability
↓Cohesiveness, springiness, processing loss↑MUFA, linolenic acid, protein ↔Consumer
acceptability[53] Compound matrix fat substitute Frankfurter Olive oil 16.8%, chia flour 25.84% 100 Direct incorporation/Emulsion/Emulsion gel ↑pH, water and fat binding properties, hardness
↓Processing loss, lipid oxidation, cohesiveness, springiness↑Dietary fibre, minerals, linolenic acid
↓Fat, energy↔Consumer
acceptability[67] Compound matrix fat substitute Frankfurter SPI 33%, carrageenan 0.5%, inulin 16.5%, soybean oil 50% 100 Emulsion gel ↑L* and b* color parameters
↓CL, hardness↑Protein, PUFA, dietary fiber
↓Fat, SFA, ω-6/ω-3 ratio, AI, TI↓Consumer
acceptability[33] Compound matrix fat substitute Bologna sausage Soybean oil 50%, soy protein 4%, inulin 16.5% 50 or 100 Emulsion gel ↑L* color parameter, elasticity, cohesiveness, resilience, lipid oxidation
↓a* color parameter↑PUFA, fiber
↓Fat, sodium↔Consumer
acceptability[71] Compound matrix fat substitute Model meat emulsion Soybean oil 50%,
remainder (soy protein isolate, sodium caseinate etc.) 50%100 Emulsion gel ↑WHC, a* and b* color parameters
↓L* color parameter↑PUFA, fiber
↓SFA− [52] Compound matrix fat substitute Pork sausage Olive oil 40%, water 53%, MC 5%, remainder (sodium alginate 0.75%, calcium sulfate 0.75%, sodium acid pyrophosphate 0.5%) 2% 100 Direct incorporation/ Emulsion gel − ↑Dietary fiber
↓Energy, fat, protein digestibility↔Consumer
acceptability[45] Compound matrix fat substitute Beef batter Canola oil 40%, polysorbate 80 0.05%, BHT 0.01%, kappa carrageenan 1.5% 100 Emulsion gel ↑L* color parameter, hardness
↓Lipid oxidation↑PUFA
↓SFA, ω-6/ω-3 ratio− [55] Compound matrix fat substitute Pork burger Pork back fat 10%,
microparticles of chia oil 10%, sodium alginate 2%, rosemary leaves 1.25%50 Microencapsulation ↓Protein oxidation ↓Ketone content ↑Consumer acceptability [56] Compound matrix fat substitute Deer pâté Tigernut/Chia/Linseed oil 6.25%, sodium caseinate 6.25%, lactose 6.25% 50 Microencapsulation ↑a* and b* color parameters, lipid oxidation
↓pH↑PUFA, MUFA
↓Fat, SFA, ω-6/ω-3 ratio, cholesterol↓Consumer
acceptability[57] Compound matrix fat substitute Frankfurter Fish oil 6.7%, maltodextrin 13%, caseinate 6%, gum arabic 1% 50 Microencapsulation ↑L* and b* color parameters, lipid oxidation ↑Protein, carbohydrate
↓Fat, SFA, MUFA, ω-6/ω-3 ratio, energy− [72] Compound matrix fat substitute Beef burger Chia oil/linseed oil 25%, sodium alginate solution 2.0% 50 Microencapsulation ↑Fat retention, heating stability, cohesiveness, chewiness, lipid oxidation
↓CL↑PUFA/SFA ratio
↓ω-6/ω-3 ratio, AI, TI− [73] Compound matrix fat substitute Beef burger Chia oil 100 g, rosemary leaves 12.5 g, sodium alginate solution 2.0% 50 Microencapsulation ↓Lipid oxidation ↑Moisture
↓Fat↑Consumer acceptability [62] RFRS: reduced-fat and reduced-salt; WHC: water-holding capacity; PDI: polydispersity index; CI: cream index; WI: white index; UFA: unsaturated fatty acids; WPI: whey protein isolate; SDS: sodium dodecyl sulfate; CL: cooking loss; MWP: microparticulated whey protein; Aw: water activity; MCC: microcrystalline cellulose; RS: resistant starch; OF: oat fiber; FA: fatty acids; SFA: saturated fatty acids; MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids; AI: atherogenic index; TI: thrombogenic index; EC-Cu: sample formulated with total pork backfat replacement by oleogel elaborated with ethyl cellulose and with curcumin; OBC: oil binding capacity; SPI: soybean protein isolate; MC: mucilage chia; BHT: butylated hydroxytoluene; MKB: Murraya koenigii; PGPR: polyglycerol polyricinoleate Table 2.
Effects of protein matrix, carbohydrate matrix, lipid matrix and complex matrix fat substitutes on the quality of meat products.
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