Figures (3)  Tables (4)

    • Figure 1. 

      Map indicating Kuwait soil group classification spread (data from KISR[37]; PAAFR, 1999).

    • Figure 2. 

      (a) Helianthemum lippi (Rakrouk), (b) Ziziphus nummularia (Jujube), (c) Farsetia aegyptia (Allabana), (d) Haloxylon salicornicum (Rimth), (e) Lycium shawii Roem. & Schult. (Awsaj), (f) Ochradenus baccatus Delile (Taily weed).

    • Figure 3. 

      (a) Calligonum polygonoides (Erta), (b) Heliotropium bacciferum (Salt heliotrope), (c) Pennisetum divisum (Thammam), (d) Panicum turgidum (Taman, tuman, or thaman), (e) Cornulaca aucheri (Hadh, saley, or thalj), (f) Salsola imbricata (Saltwort, milayah).

    • Month
      JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec
      High temperature (°C)192227334044464642362721
      Low temperature (°C)791319252930302621149
      Mean temperature (°C)131520263236383834282015
      Percipitation (mm)10.83.72.315.711.810.118.43.71.70.30.94.1
      Humidity64%54%43%34%21%13%14%18%21%36%50%62%
      Wind (km/h)121414151520191614121212

      Table 1. 

      Monthly climate and weather averages in Kuwait (adapted from www.timeanddate.com/weather/kuwait/kuwait-city/climate).

    • Soil groupsDescription
      TorripsammentsWell to somewhat excessively drained, deep or very deep sandy soils.
      PetrocalcidsWell drained or moderately drained, shallow or moderately deep, sandy to loamy soils overlying a calcic hardpan. When upper soil is truncated, it may appear at the surface.
      HaplocalcidsWell drained, deep or very deep, sandy to loamy soils, which have a layer ofcarbonate masses and nodules in the profile.
      *HaplogypsidsWell drained, deep or very deep, sandy to loamy soils, which have a layer of gypsum crystals in the profile.
      AquisalidsPoorly or somewhat poorly drained, deep or very deep, sandy to clayey soils. Within the soil there is a layer of salt accumulation that usually occurs near the surface.
      CalcigypsidsWell drained, deep or very deep, sandy to loamy soils containing a layer of carbonate masses and nodules and a layer of gypsum crystals within the profile.
      PetrogypsidsWell drained, shallow or moderately deep, sandy to loamy soils overlying a gypsic hardpan. Hardpan may be exposed at surface, when upper soil is truncated.
      TorriorthentsExcessively drained to well drained, moderately deep or very deep, sandy soils. Within the soil profile there is a high content of shell fragments and some gypsum accumulations
      MiscellanousRefers to areas that are incapable of supporting vegetation without significant reclamation efforts. This includes dumps and quarries and urban and industrial areas.
      *Due to map scale limitations, Haplogypsids are not shown.

      Table 2. 

      Kuwait soil group classification (adapted from Shahid & Omar[35]; Omar et al.[34]; Soil Survey Staff [36]; KISR[37]; PAAFR, 1999).

    • Vegetation formPlant nameFamilyDescriptionPlant spacingFlowering timeEnvironmental conditionsAdditional info
      ShrubsHelianthemum lippi Rakrouk
      (Fig. 2a)      		CistaceaeSmall perennial shrubby plant 10−45 cm tall[60]Triangular spacing
      of 2 m[55]      		March−AprilOccurs on sandy soils and sandy limestone gypsum[60]• Used in the stabilization of sand.
      • Host plant for several species of desert truffles.
      • Medicinal properties[60].
      Ziziphus nummularia
      Jujube
      (Fig. 2b)      		Rhamnaceae
      		Thorny shrub that grows to 1−5 m height. Branches zig-zag, covered with white coating. Stems and branches are purplish to ashy. Bark light brown. Multi-stemmed from the base leaves shortly stalked, ovate to orbicular, serrate, 12−18 mm long, 8−10 mm broad, round at apex and base, more or less tomentose above but densely wooly beneath. Stipular spines in pairs, one slender and straight whereas other short and recurved. Flowers cream color, flowers during July- August and the ripe fruits are available in November-December[56]6 m × 6 m[56]March−June
      		Hardy enough to grow not only in hostile arid environment but also in poor and different forms of soil profiles underneath[56]. It is adapted to flat alluvial plains with fairly deep (80-120 cm) sandy loam soils and with a hard kankar pan below[56]. Flat alluvial plains with sandy clay loam to clayey soils and a kankar pan at 45-60 cm below the soil also show high shrub density in semi-arid regions[56]. Drought hardy, thrives in areas with 125 to 850 mm rainfall[56].• Fodder yielding shrub.
      • Source of fruit.
      • Source of wood.
      • Medicinal uses: bark is used in diarrhea, while roots are used to make digestive and nutritive tonic[56].
      Farsetia aegyptia

      Al-labana
      (Fig. 2c)      		Brassicaceae
      		Native grey-green woody perennial about 30 cm in height. It has slender, smooth and multi-branched stems. The flowers are creamy brown with four petals. Two rows of seeds are formed in an oval- shaped seed pod. It flowers in April[61]Triangular
      spacing of 2 m[55]      		 March−AprilGrows on gravelly soils to stony ground. It grows in severe climatic conditions with under 100 mm rainfall per year[66].
      		• Traditionally used to treat toothache and gingivitis, and for sore eyes.
      • A decoction of the plant mixed with alum is used as a mouth rinse and for disinfecting (Morocco)[66].
      Haloxylon
      salicornicum Rimth
      (Fig. 2d)      		Amaranthaceae
      		Dwarf branching perennial shrub, with a plant height of 0.75–1.0 m. Bark is pale in color, stem and branches are pale yellow, jointed producing two triangular scales which take the place of leaves. Branches are erect or ascending terete. Almost leafless and leaves reduced to dilated tips of the joints. Has a wide-spread and deep tap root system that extends beyond 5 m and estimated to go 8–10 m deep. Flowers are bisexual and born singly by short twigs in axes of scale like bracts[58]2 mSept−OctIs resilient to a variety of habitats: shallow runnels, alluvial fans, shallow silt, low dunes, hard gravel and sandy gravelly wadi-terraces, sandy plains, gravel desert, sandy undulating plains, sandy plains and inter-dunal areas. It requires a minimum annual rainfall of 100 mm[5]. It can tolerate high salinity up to 8,000–10,000 mg L−1[58].• Fruiting tops and seed as animal feed.
      • Seeds as emergency food.
      • Wood as fuel.
      • Different plant parts for medicine.
      • Used in restoration of degraded lands[58]
      Lycium shawii
      Roem. & Schult.
      Awsaj
      (Fig. 2e)      		Solanaceae
      		Perennial shrub with purple, sometimes white, trumpet like flowers and sharp thorns. Leaves are elliptical and congested in closed clusters. Fruits are globular, red to orange berries which are edible [59]2 m × 2 m[62]March−April
      and
      throughout
      the year in
      irrigated soil      		Grows in a variety of desert habitats; gravel plains, hillsides, valleys, sandy stone ridges and along drainage basin, such as valleys and depressions[67].• Fruits are edible.
      • provides honey for wild bees.
      • Food and shelter for wild birds and animals.
      • The roots are boiled and the decoction is used to treat sores in the mouth, coughs, backache and administered internally to cure tick fever in livestock.
      • Leaves are used to treat constipation and stomach ache.
      • Leaves are much liked by livestock[59].
      Ochradenus baccatus Delile

      Taily Weed
      (Fig. 2f)      		Resedaceae
      		Perennial shrub, grows up to 2 m high, with grey green linear leaves, blooms yellow flowers, followed by white berries. Stems greenish in color[57].1.5 m × 1.5 m[62]
      		Dec−MarchGrows on dry soils and colonizes arid environments where saline soils are common. Has high drought tolerance[68]• Fruits are one of the most important food sources for many animal species in the Arabian desert.
      • O. baccatus have various medicinal uses.
      • Useful in controlling root-knot nematodes.
      • Planted as cover plant/ green manure[68].
      Calligonum polygonoides
      Erta
      (Fig. 3a)      		PolygonaceaeSmall perennial shrub that is about 1 to 2 m high, with a girth of 30−60 cm. Stem has nodes and internodes which join stem and branches conspicuously. Flowers: are white, small, bisexual and regular. Fruit is oblong and nut-like; small and rounded seeds[63].Triangular spacing
      of 2 m[55]      		March−AprilGrows on dry sandy soil of the desert[69]. It is highly resistant to drought [70].
      		• Harvested for use as fodder.
      • Fuel wood.
      • Food.
      • Used for sand dune stabilization[70]
      Heliotropium
      bacciferum
      Salt heliotrope
      (Fig. 3b)
      		BoraginaceaeAscending or procumbent, herbaceous perennial undershrub, that grows up to 50 cm. Dark green with semi-fleshy leaves and white bristles. Flowers, small, white, tubular; fruits achenes[74].30–60 cm[75]March−AprilGrows in saline sandy soils, sandy wadis, on calcareous ridges. Dominate disturbed locations and roadsides[74].• Dried and powdered plant is added to water and drunk to combat fatigue.
      • Leaf sap is applied to burns.
      • Applied topically to treat headache.
      • Used internally to treat gonorrhea and to increase lactation.
      • Macerate of the plant is used as ink[74].
      GrassesPennisetum divisum
      Thammam
      (Fig. 3c)      		PoaceaePerennial grass. It can grow quite large in substantial clumps up to 1−3 m in height[64].Triangular spacing
      of 2 m[55]. Other options include;
      90 m × 1.20 m, 50 cm × 50 cm, depending on aesthetic.      		Feb−AprilDrought-resistant, grows in depressions and shallow wadis with coarser textured sandy and gravelly soil[71]. Naturally found on torripsamment and aquisalid soil types, located on level coastal plains covered by uneven sand sheets or isolated hummocks[34].• Animal Fodder.
      • Used in land stabilization for soil protection and sand dune fixation[71].
      Panicum turgidum
      Taman, tuman, or thaman
      (Fig. 3d)      		Poaceae Perennial growing to 1.5 m × 0.2 m at a fast rate[65].Triangular spacing
      of 2 m[55]. Other option include; 90 cm × 120 cm or 50 cm × 50 cm, depending on aesthetic.      		Feb−AprilDrought-resistant, grows in shallow wadis and runnels in deep sandy soil, salt-affected areas and is a salt excluder[71, 72]. Naturally found on torripsamment and aquisalid soil types, located on level coastal plains covered by uneven sand sheets or isolated hummocks[34].• Animal Fodder.
      • Used in land stabilization for soil protection and sand dune fixation[71].
      Ground
      cover      		Cornulaca aucheri
      Hadh, saley, or thalj
      (Fig. 3e)      		Amarantha
      ceae      		Annual or short-lived perennial, leaves are linear-filiform to triangular-subulate, long, greyish-green, re-curved, white spine and densely woolly in axils. Average length is 94.2 cm in average length, average height is 141.7 cm[73].-April−MayGrows in wadi, depressions, and playas[73]. Have a short life span and dominate immediately after a disturbance[34].• Used for sand fixation and stabilization[73].
      • Used as camel fodder[119].
      Salsola imbricata
      Saltwort, milayah
      (Fig. 3f)      		Amarantha
      ceae      		Succulent light green undershrub with rudimentary leaves on red and green branches. Flowers minute, green, bisexual with 5 stamens; calyces inflated in fruit forming transparent wings surrounding the fruitJune−SeptDisturbed areas, saline soils, sandy desert and coastal areas[119]. Have a short life span and dominate immediately after a disturbance[34]. Naturally found on aquisalids soil types[34].• Traditionally being used to treat asthma, cough and congestion.

      Table 3. 

      Recommended native plant species for green urban landscapes in Kuwait.

    • Vegetation formPlant nameFamilyNative toDescriptionExposureEnvironmental conditionsAdditional info
      Trees Eucalyptus camaldulensis DEHNH
      River red gum      		MyrtaceaeAustraliaEvergreen single-stemmed, large-boled, medium-sized tree, commonly grows to about 20 m tall, though occasional specimens can reach
      50 m[80].
      		Full SunHigh salinity tolerance, medium drought tolerance, medium irrigation is required[19]. It grows in areas where the mean annual precipitation is in the range of 250−2,500 mm and an annual temp. range of 3−22 °C min to 21−40 °C max[80]. Plant prefers a pH in the range 5−7, tolerating 4.5−8[80]. Reported to grow in areas with only 200 mm rainfall, Succeeds in most soils[80].• Leaves are used as an antiseptic and is used for relieving coughs and colds, sore throats and other infections.
      • Plant is an aromatic, astringent, tonic herb that sticks to the teeth and turns the saliva red.
      • Resin contains tannins and is used internally in the treatment of diarrhea and bladder inflammation, externally it is applied to cuts.
      • Smoke from burning leaves helps to repel insects[80].
      Eucalyptus microtheca F. MUELL Coolibah
      		MyrtaceaeAustraliaEvergreen shrub or small tree grows to 3−20 m tall depending on growing conditions[79].Full sunHigh salinity tolerance, medium drought tolerance, low irrigation is required[19]. Tolerant to mean annual rainfall in the range 250−1,000 mm, but tolerates 150−1,200 mm[79]. A pH in the range 6.5−8, tolerating 6−9[79].• Planted for shelterbelts, shade, soil conservation, and erosion control.
      • Flowers are an excellent source of nectar and pollen for bees.
      • Inner bark is a traditional Aboriginal medicine, mashed and prepared into a poultice to treat snakebites.
      • Seeds are powdered and made into cakes.
      • Source of water where no free water was available[79].
      Acacia rigens

      Needle bush wattle      		Fabaceae
      		AustraliaCompact, rounded shrub grows from 2.4 to 3 m tall, bright yellow flowers[76].Full sunDoes well with dry conditions and a well-drained soil[76].• Provide: fuel, firewood, timber, forage, gum, tannins, fiber, folk medicine, and food.
      • useful for environmental protection and soil and water conservation.
      • Support large numbers of herbivorous vertebrates and invertebrates and nectarivorous insects[82].
      Acacia saligna


      Golden wreath wattle      		Fabaceae
      		AustraliaSmall tree grows from 3 to 7.6 m tall with a bushy, spreading crown, Golden yellow to almost orange flowers[76].Full sunIt does well in almost any soil, from light to heavy[76].• Provide: fuel, firewood, timber, forage, gum, tannins, fiber, folk medicine, and food.
      • useful for environmental protection and soil and water conservation.
      • Support large numbers of herbivorous vertebrates and invertebrates and nectarivorous insects[82].
      Acacia ehrenbergiana Hayne.

      Tamat

      		Fabaceae
      		Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Upper Volta and Niger, and extending into the Sahara and to the Nile Valley.
      		4.5 m high
      		Full sunDrought tolerant species, can survive in areas that experience rainfall of 50−400 mm/annum[82].• Provide: fuel, firewood, timber, forage, gum, tannins, fiber, folk medicine, and food.
      • useful for environmental protection and soil and water conservation.
      • Support large numbers of herbivorous vertebrates and invertebrates and nectarivorous insects[82].
      Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) (Hayne)Fabaceae Angola, Botswana, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Iran, Israel, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Zambia, Zimbabwe[99].Small to medium-sized evergreen tree or shrub that grows up to 21 m tall. Flat-topped or rounded, spreading crown; bark grey to black or dark brown, rough, fissured or smooth. Leaves glabrous to densely pubescent, glandular, short[99].Full sun Drought tolerant species, can survive in areas with rainfall of 50−400 mm/annum[82].• Provide: fuel, firewood, timber, forage, gum, tannins, fiber, folk medicine, and food.
      • useful for environmental protection and soil and water conservation.
      • Support large numbers of herbivorous vertebrates and invertebrates and nectarivorous insects[82].
      Acacia sowdenii

      Western myall
      		Fabaceae
      		AustraliaLong-lived, frost- and drought-resistant small tree that grows from 3.6 to 5.5 m tall with drooping branches. Yellow flowers appear irregularly, but are prolific when conditions are right[76].Full sunPrefers a dry, well-drained soil[76].• Provide: fuel, firewood, timber, forage, gum, tannins, fiber, folk medicine, and food.
      • useful for environmental protection and soil and water conservation.
      • Support large numbers of herbivorous vertebrates and invertebrates and nectarivorous insects[82].
      Prosopis cineraria


      Gaf
      		Fabaceae
      		Arabian gulfEvergreen tree, grows up to 6.5 m high. Leaves 1−3 jugate, glabrous or puberulous; greyish when dry[99].Full sunDrought-tolerant and thrives in hot, arid regions with an annual rainfall of less than 500 mm[76]. Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil that are acidic, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils, pH of 6.5−8.5, tolerating 5.5−9.8
      [78, 99].      		• Pods are used as vegetable in the dried and green form.
      • Bark is ground and used as flour.
      • Plant is reported to be astringent, demulcent, and pectoral[78].
      Ebenopsis ebano

      Texas ebony      		Fabaceae
      		Texas/USAEvergreen perennial shrub or tree (1.2 m) with multiple trunks. A rounded, dense crown. Medium green, Alternate, pinnately compound leaf with 3 to 5 pairs, oblong to obovate. Small, musty fragrant, cream-colored flowers in dense, slender, terminal spikes to 3.8 cm long, flowers strongly attract bees[105].Full sunTolerant of heat and cold and full sun. Highly tolerant of desert soils. Very drought tolerant once established. Providing supplemental water to young specimens will increase growth rate[105].

      		• Stipular spines that can draw blood.
      • Grows a dense canopy to the ground, crown raising is the principal pruning technique that needs to be continuously done.
      • Slow growth rate[105].

      Lysiloma watsonii

      Desert fern      		Fabaceae
      		South west USALarge spreading shrub with hard brittle wood, grow up to 3.6−4.5 m. Has dense, feathery canopy, that is evergreen to partly deciduous foliage[120].

      		Full sun-partial shade
      		Drought tolerant species that requires full sun to partial shade. Survives in moist to dry soil, that is loam or sand texture. That is slightly acidic to highly alkaline soil in pH[120].• Requires corrective pruning to remove suckers and to help develop good structure.
      • Produces some leaf and seedpod litter
      • A good selection for the landscape when light shade is needed for smaller, understory plants.
      • Use around pools or ponds for a desert oasis theme, tropical effect, or background screen.
      • Nice patio tree or specimen for small spaces[121].
      • The bark is brewed into medicinal tea to relieve gas and symptoms of liver problems.
      • Heating the tea is used to raise the body temperature for women who are infertile because of ingestion.
      • Wood can be used to make posts and molds for building.
      • Provides shelter for animals during hot weather and nesting season[122].
      Havardia Mexicana


      Mexican ebony      		Fabaceae
      		South west
      USA      		Evergreen tree, with a dark grey trunk and branch structure, grows to 12 m. Has yellow or white flowers that are very fragrant and also produces fruit and nectar that often attract wildlife[87].
      		Full sun
      		Prefers loose, well-drained soil with low water usage (monthly) and needs full sun for proper development. The Mexican ebony struggles in caliche or hardpan; it prefers deeper soils[87].
      		• Wood is used for furniture building, as a material for agave liquor stills, firewood, and as beams for building.
      • Bark is brewed into a tea that can relieve upset stomachs.
      • Provides shade and shelter for animals.
      • Pods are edible and are often consumed by animals.
      • Fragrant flowers, fruit, and nectar attract many different forms of wildlife[87].
      Parkinsonia praecox

      Sonoran Palo Verde      		Fabaceae
      		Sonora, southern Baja California into Michoacan, Mexico, Columbia, Peru and Ecuador[81].Semi-evergreen tree, loose and unruly, umbrella top with age and proper pruning, spreading and broad. sometimes ranging to 6m with greater spread. Masses of yellow flowers in axillary clusters followed by light brown pods[81].

      		Full sunDrought-tolerant; suitable for xeriscaping. Grows well in areas that receive as little as 80−100 mm of annual rainfall. Supplemental irrigation will increase growth. Prefers full sun and well-drained soil in cultivated landscapes. Has a pH tolerance of 6.1−7.8[86].

      		• Suited to large, open desert gardens where its architectural uniqueness can be featured.
      • Should not be planted in areas where its crown needs to be raised or pruned excessively[81].
      • Needs little to no supplemental water once established[81].


      ShrubsAcacia victoriae

      Bramble wattle      		Fabaceae
      		AustraliaA multi-branched 3.5−4.5 m shrub that makes a good hedge if mass planted. It performs best in warm, dry conditions. Pale yellow flowers in two-to-three-inch racemes[76].Full sunPerforms best in warm, dry conditions[76]. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 12−32 °C, but can tolerate 5−38 °C[83]. Prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 300−800mm, but tolerates 100−1,000 mm. Succeeds in most soils, being able to tolerate occasional short-term inundation. Tolerant of saline soils, yet prefers soils with a pH in the range 6−7.5, tolerating 5−8.5[83].The probable lifespan is 10−15 years[83].
      Shrubs/
      Grasses      		Atriplex spongiosa


      Pop saltbush
      		Amaranthaceae
      		AustraliaAnnual or short-lived perennial forb, grows up 40 cm tall or sprawling. Leaves are 1−4 cm long, 3–15 mm wide. Flowers are tiny (less than 3 mm across), male and female flowers on the same plant[84].
      		Full sunStabilizing soil and/or make conditions more acceptable for the establishment by other species[51]. High salinity and drought tolerance.• High fodder quality and biomass production.
      • High water efficiency[51].
      Maireana sp.


      Band blue bushes      		Amaranthaceae
      		AustraliaSucculent-like blue-white shrub[85].
      		Full sun to partial shade
      		Grows well in most soils, including alkaline clays. Prefers full sun but will grow in partial shade in desert areas[85]. Drought tolerant once established[85].• Makes an excellent container shrub and cut flower[85].
      Chrysopogon zizanioides


      Vetiver grass
      		Poaceae
      		IndiaStiff and erect stems, up to 2 m high, which can be trimmed to form neat hedges, stem flower heads with light purple flower, turning to mauve color later. It is sterile, so it is not invasive and has no weed potential[77].Full sun to partial Shade
      		Tolerance to extreme climatic variation such as prolonged drought, flood, submergence and extreme temperatures (15–60 °C). It can tolerate precipitation levels as low as 300 mm and with up to 6-month drought[77].

      		• Massive and penetrating root system that can grow very fast, up to 3–4 m in the first year.
      • Will continue to grow with deposited silt eventually forming terraces, if trapped sediment is not removed.
      • New shoots develop from the underground crown making vetiver resistant to fire, frosts, traffic and heavy grazing pressure[77].
      Eragrostis curvula


      Weeping lovegrass
      		Poaceae
      		Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Provinces, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Free State, Kenya, KwaZulu-Natal, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Northern Provinces, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zaïre, ZimbabweDensely tufted, perennial grass. Its growth habit varies from erect to prostate, reaching a height of 30–120 cm. Stems can be slender or robust, with green to purple nodes, usually erect but sometimes bent at lower nodes. Leaves are dark green to blue-green. Basal leaf sheaths are keeled, strongly striate, usually hairless but sometimes silky hairy below and are typically straw-colored or purplish[88].Full sun
      		Inhabits semi-arid subtropical grasslands and open scrublands, mainly on low-fertility, acidic sands and light-textured sandy loams, and particularly areas with significant elevation[88]. It is often associated with disturbed or badly managed areas. Grows in areas where annual summer rainfall is 400–1,000 mm and mean minimum and maximum temperatures are between 0 °C and 30 °C respectively[88].


      		• Can become dominant when subject to heavy grazing pressure on disturbed land.
      • Growth rates tend to decline when competing with other plants.
      • Often suffers from fungal infections, mites and nematodes in areas where summer rainfall exceeds 700 mm and poor tolerance to flooding and standing water[89].


      Ground coverAmbrosia chamissonis


      Silver bur, ragweed      		Asteraceae
      		Alaska, British Columbia, California, Chile Central, Chile South, Mexico Northwest, Oregon, WashingtonPerennial herb from long, creeping rhizomes; stems leafy, spreading-hairy, stout, branched just below the surface, forming large, lax clumps 20–160 cm tall. Leaves are succulent, mostly alternate, oblong to rounded in outline[90].Full sunPlants occur in moist to mesic coastal sandy or gravelly upper beaches and shorelines[90]
      		• Attracts insects and birds.
      • Erosion control
      Artemisia californica


      California sagebrush

      		Asteraceae
      		California, Mexico Northwest
      		Aromatic, subshrub usually 0.6–1.5 m tall but sometimes reaches 2.5 m, tend to be wide with many branches from the base. Upper branches are somewhat unbranched and the stems are whitish with appressed hairs, long, slender, leafy, and flexible[91].Full sunOccur on virtually all soil types except serpentine and on a variety of soil textures including depth loams, clayey loams, sandy loams, and loamy sands[90]. Drought tolerant, total annual precipitation ranges from about 25 – 60 cm, but can be higher. Requires full sun or nearly full sun[91]. California sagebrush can be compact if kept pruned and subjected to occasional pinching.• Provides habitat for many plant and animal species.
      • Leaves have been used by Native Americans for smoking, in sweat-houses, and various other purposes.
      • Said to stimulate the uterine mucosa, ensuring rapid childbirth and, if regularly consumed as a decoction prior to the onset of each menstruation, to prevent menstrual cramps and alleviate menopausal trauma.
      • Fresh or dried leaves were chewed to alleviate colds[91].
      Lasthenia glabrata


      yellowray goldfields
      		Asteraceae
      		California, Mexico Northwest
      		An annual that grows up to 0.3 m, with daisy like yellow flowers. The species is a hermaphrodite[92].Full sunGrows in light sandy soils to heavy clay soils, vernal pools, low alkaline fields, hillsides etc, especially in grassland and alkaline marshes, up to 1,300 m. Prefers a sunny position[92].• Seeds are edible raw or cooked. They can be parched and eaten dry or made into a powder or cooked like a porridge[92].
      Mimulus aurantiacus


      Bush monkey flower
      		Phrymaceae
      		Southwestern North America, southwestern Oregon, California, Baja, Mexico
      		Bushy evergreen shrub with narrow lanceolate dark green leaves and flowering stems with trumpet shaped flowers, grows up to 90–120 cm tall and 90 cm wide[93].Full sun to partial sunGrows in clay, loamy and sandy soils with a soil pH that ranges acidic to alkaline, in full to partial sun[93].• Pollinated by birds and bees.
      • Great choice for beds, borders and rock gardens and stone walls[93].
      Limonium californicum


      Western Marsh Rosemary
      		Plumbaginaceae
      		California, Mexico Northwest, Nevada, Oregon
      		Half-hardy annual, Hardy perennial, half hardy perennial, 10–70 cm tall[94].Full sunFull sunlight. Light soils. Sandy soil. However, can survive in dry soils[94].• Yearly feed for perennials.
      • Cut perennials to the ground in autumn.
      • Propagate: divide perennials in spring or autumn[94].
      Alhagi graecorum
      Mannatree
      		Fabaceae
      		California, Mexico Northwest, Texas
      		Perennial thorny shrub that grows up to 1m tall, woody at the base in older plants, glabrous or sparingly hairy, with long creeping solons; stems erect or ascending, much branched, twigs spiny at their tips. Leaves are alternate, simple, entire, elliptic to obovate, 7–20 mm long with short petioles 1–2 mm long and stipules 1 mm long. flowers are pink to maroon, approximately 10 mm long with a short slender pedicel[95, 96].
      		Full sunOccurs on a range of soils from silty loams to clays as well as saline depressions[96]. It is adapted to alkaline to neutral soils.• Roots are used to treat kidney stones and diarrhea[95].
      Ground coverConvolvulus virgatus
      Morning glory      		Convolvulaceae
      		Gulf States, Iran, Oman, Pakistan
      		Under shrub forming a small bush up to 40 cm high and 60 cm wide; stems from a deep woody taproot, many, ascending, rigid, green, glabrous, sometimes spinescent at the tips, weakly divaricate. Leaves sessile lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, glabrous, acute or acuminate, corolla 1.3–2.1 cm, usually white, sometimes pinkish[97].Full sunFull sunlight. Good drainage. Soil pH 6–8. Regular watering. It may be necessary to trim leaves to display flowers[98].• Great container plants and indoor plants, and also perform well in rock gardens, sunny beds and borders, or gravel patios.
      • Best to prune in middle to late spring or once flowering has completed[98].
      Crotalaria aegyptiaca

      Rattlepod
      		Fabaceae
      		Egypt, Gulf States, India, Oman, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Sinai, Somalia, Yemen
      		Perennial Shrub, reaches up to 60 cm high, multi-branched, leafless at flowering[100].Full sunDominates sandstone stone soils, but not found in limestone soils[101].• Grazed by camels and gazelles, but poisonous to sheep and goat.
      • Old dry plants may revive after rainfall[100].
      Dipterygium glaucum

      Blooming shrub      		Cleomaceae
      		Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Gulf States, India, Iran, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Yemen
      		Erect woody herb up to 80 cm high with numerous basal branches, slim olive-green leathery leaves. Flowers small with tubercles, yellow with pink tinge in few-flowered racemes; fruit/winged, pale green[108].Full sunHabitat sandy soils[35]. Mostly grows on deep sands, also on saline sands[108].
      		• Grazed by livestock and often very stunted
      • Often flowering and fruiting in the first year
      • Used to treat respiratory disease[108].
      Heliotropium curassavicum
      Salt heliotrope      		Boraginaceae
      		Americas; from Canada to Argentina
      		Perennial herb, glaucous green borage. Leaves blue-green, obovate cuneate slightly fleshy. Flowers in scorpioid cymes usually a pair of cymes, white with yellow tinge[74].Full sunHabitat: Fields[74]. Sandy soils with a pH in the range of 6.6–8.5. It has a high tolerance to drought and anthropogenic disturbance. It can withstand areas with a rainfall of 200mm[106].
      		• Dried and powdered plant is added to water and drunk to combat fatigue.
      • Topically to treat headache and used internally to treat gonorrhoea and to increase lactation.
      • Macerate of the plant is used as ink
      • Leaf sap is applied to burns[74].
      Rhazya stricta Decne.

      Harmal      		Apocynaceae
      		Afghanistan, Gulf States, India, Iran, Iraq, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, West Himalaya, YemenEvergreen dwarf shrub with thick foliage. It is a glabrous, upright perennial plant with many branches emerging from the base. Flowers are bisexual, white[102,103]. Yellowish-green shrub, up to 70 cm high.Full sunGrows in depressions with silty and sandy soils sometimes forming a pure stand and moderately salt-tolerant[102].
      		• Used as a bitter tonic, to treat sore throat and fever.
      • Used to treat liver ailments[102].



      Rhynchosia minima

      Jumby-bean
      		Fabaceae
      		Afghanistan, Gulf States, India, Iran, Iraq, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, West Himalaya, YemenPerennial herb, prostrate-trailing herb growing up to several meters long with trifoliolate leaves, the terminal leaflet rhomboid. Fruit a 2-seeded brown pod constricted between the seeds[119].Full sun Grows in woodland and grassland, roadsides, disturbed areas and depressions with sandy-clayey soil[119].

      		• Plant is used as food for making sweet meats.
      • Root is laxative, vermifuge. It is used in the treatment of diarrhea, dysentery.
      • Leaf-sap and the root are used to treat hemorrhoids.
      • Leaves are abortifacient, inducing contractions of the uterus[119].
      Senna italica

      Italian senna      		Fabaceae
      		Africa to the Indian Subcontinent.Leafy low shrub, up to 0.60 cm high with numerous branches ending in terminal racemes of yellow flowers distinct by the orange spots at the bases of the leaflets; fruits falcate tuberculated pods with persistent styles[119].Full sunIt is found in Runnels, wadis and depressions[119]. Will tolerate moistly and very poorly draining soils[107].

      		• Leaves, pods and unmatured seeds are used as purgative, decoction and maceration to treat stomach complaints, fever, jaundice, venereal diseases and biliousness.
      • Used as abortifacient and against intestinal worms.
      • Leaves fresh or dried or pulverized used to dress skin problems, burns and ulcers. Flowers are made into tea and used as purgative and to induce labor.
      • Root maceration are used to cure colic and influenza.
      • Boiled roots are used to dress wounds.
      • Root infusion is used as eye drops for sore eyes and for the treatment of indigestion, liver complaints, gall bladder, nausea, vomiting and dysmenorrhea. Young seeds are eaten as snacks or as vegetable[107].
      Tribulus arabicus

      Zahr      		Zygophyllaceae
      		Gulf States, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Yemen.
      		Perennial herb up to 70 cm high with grey-green leaves and with large yellow flowers (1.5–2.0 cm)[104].Full sunStabilizes sand and sand plains[109].• No records of its use[109].
      Pulicaria glutinosa

      False fleabean      		Asteraceae
      		NE. Tropical Africa, Arabian Peninsula, S. Pakistan.
      		Subshrub 20–45 cm high, densely branched. Branches glabrous, glutinous. Leaves linear, 10–30, 1–2 mm, margins strongly revolute, apex apiculate, glabrous, sticky[110].Full sunSalt-tolerant plants grow in exceptionally salt-rich soil or waters of high-salinity conditions, including marshy and coastal lands. Adapted to survive in the prevailing dry climate and high-salt soil conditions[111].• Several Pulicaria species are used to treat inflammation, diabetes, and gastrointestinal disorders.
      • Plants from the genus are also used as tonic, food-preservative, in perfumes, and as part of salad[111].

      Table 4. 

      Recommended non-native xeric plant species that are tolerant of Kuwait’s climatic conditions.