Figures (2)  Tables (4)

    • Figure 1. 

      The classification scheme of non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs). Italics represent the NSPs chosen under each category to depict the effect on starch. Cellulose serves as the fiber microfibrils, non-cellulosic polymers serve as cell walls or fiber matrix, and pectic substances function as intercellular cement.

    • Figure 2. 

      Mechanisms from lowering effects of NSPs on starch digestion.

    • OriginNameSolubilityMajor compositionMolecular weight (kDa)Main functionReference
      Botanical
      Cellulose derived moleculesMethyl CelluloseSolubleβ (1,4) D-glucose20~1,000Thickening, gelling, stabilizing, emulsification[71,73]
      Cellulose derived moleculesCarboxy methylcelluloseSolubleβ (1,4) D-glucose95~1,100Thickening[74]
      Cellulose derived moleculesHydroxypropyl methylcelluloseSolubleβ (1,4) D-glucose20~1,000Thickening, gelling, stabilizing, emulsification[74]
      Plant tissue extractsPectinSolubleα-(1–4)-linked D-galacturonic and mannuronic acid.50~150Stabilizing, gelling[71,73]
      Tree gum exudates (Acacia Sap)Gum ArabicSolubleGalactose200~800Emulsification, film forming[71,73]
      Roots of chicory (Asteraceae)InulinSolubleβ-D-fructose0.5~13Prebiotic, thickening[71]
      TubersKonjac-glucomannanSolubleD-glucose and D-mannose,10~2,000Thickening, gelling, texturing, water binding[73]
      Viscous plant substances (Seeds mucilages)Locust bean gumSolubleD-mannose and D-galactose500~1,000Stabilizing, thickening,[71,73]
      Viscous plant substances (Seeds mucilages)Tara gumSolubleD-mannose and D-galactose~1,000Stabilizing, thickening, gelling[71]
      Plant tissue extractsβ-glucanSolubleD-glucose10~1,000Stabilizing, thickening, emulsification[74]
      Seed endosperm of Cyamopsis tetragonolobusGuar gumSolubleLinear chain of Galactomannan unit100~2,000Stabilizing, thickening[73]
      Tree gum exudates (Dried sap of several legumes of the Astragalus, including A.
      adscendens, A. gummifer,
      and A. tragacanthus)      		Tragacanth gumSoluble: tragacanthin; Insoluble: bassorinTragacanthin and tragacanthic acid~840Stabilizing, thickening, emulsification[73,74]
      Viscous plant substances (mucilages)PsylliumSolubleArabinoxylan35~3,800Thickening, gelling[74]
      Brown seaweedsAlginateSolubleβ-D-Mannuronic Acid32~400Stabilizing, gelling[71]
      Red seaweeds (Sphaerococcus euchema)AgarSoluble in hot waterβ-D-Galactopyranose80~140Stabilizing, gelling[71,73]
      Red seaweedsCarrageenan (kappa-, lambda- and iota-)SolubleSulphated D-galactose and L-anhydrogalactose400~700Stabilizing, gelling, thickening[71,73,75]
      Animal
      Crustaceans, InvertebratesChitosanSoluble in acetic aqueous solutions2-amino-2-deoxy-β-D-glucose4~500Gelling[73,77]
      Microbial
      Aureobasidium
      pullulans      		PullulanSolubleα-D-glucan40~600Thickening, gelling, foaming, flocculating, stabilizing, binding[10,75]
      Fermentation gums (Xanthomonas campestris exudate)Xanthan GumSolubleβ-D-glucose u, two mannose and one glucuronic acid1,000~50,000Structure formation, thickening, stabilizing[71,73]
      Fermentation gums (Pseudomonas elodea)Gellan gumSoluble in hot waterThe basic unit is composed of 1,3- and 1,4-linked 2 glucose residues, 1,3-linked
      1 glucuronic acid
      residue, and 1,4-linked
      1 rhamnose residue      		~500Gelling, film forming[74−76]
      Fermentation gums
      (of microbial origin)      		CurdlanSoluble in an alkaline aqueous solutionlinear glucan D-glucose53~5,800Gelling[77]
      Fermentation gums
      (of microbial origin)      		DextranSolubleComposed of D-glucose, the main chain is α-1,6 bonds, and there are also branched chains with
      α-1,4 or α-1,3 bonds      		40~70Stabilizing, thickening, emulsification[74]

      Table 1. 

      Summary of important molecular characteristics of some common non-starch polysaccharides used in foods.

    • Type of non-starch polysaccharideType of starchToTpTcΔHReference
      Botanical
      ArabinoxylansWheat starch↑/↓ (depends on arabinoxylans molecular weight)↑/—↑/↓/——[28]
      β-glucansRice starch↑↑↑↓[25]
      Corn fiber gumWheat starch———↑[29]
      Carboxymethyl celluloseWheat starch↑N↑↑[23]
      Carboxymethyl celluloseNixtamalization maize dough↑↑↑↓[24]
      Fenugreek gumCorn starch↑/↓(depends
      on starch
      nitrationation)      		NN—[31]
      Guar gumChestnut starch↑↓/—(depends
      on guar concentration)      		↑↑[38]
      Guar gumAcorn starch↑↑↑↓[40]
      InulinWheat starch↑↑↑/—(depends
      on inulin DP)      		↓/—(depends
      on inulin DP)      		[27]
      Konjac glucomannanCorn starch↑↑↑—[34]
      Konjac glucomannanPotato starch—↑↑↓[35]
      Konjac glucomannanMaize starch/potato starch———/↑(depends
      on starch origin)      		↓[36]
      Mesona chinensis polysaccharideWaxy maize starch/normal maize starch↑↑↑↓[44]
      Okra extractWheat starch/corn starch↑↑N↑(wheat starch)/ ↓(corn starch)[43]
      Pectin/InulinPotato starch↑(pectin)/↓(inulin)↑(pectin)/↑(inulin)↑(pectin)/ —(inulin)↓(pectin)/ —(inulin)[37]
      Sodium alginateWheat starch↑NN↓[48]
      TamarindWaxy/normal/high amylose corn starchN↑N↑[30]
      Yellow mustard mucilageWheat starch/rice starchN—N↑[42]
      Animal
      ChitosanMaize starch↑↑↑↓[45]
      Microbial
      XanthanRice starch———↓[50]
      Multiple types
      β-glucans (curdlan, oat, barley and yeast β-glucans)Rice starch———↓[26]
      Guar gum/xanthanTapioca starch↑(guar)—(guar)/
      ↑(xanthan)      		—↓[51]
      Guar gum /CMC/Xanthan gum/tapioca extracts/tamarind seeds extractsWaxy rice starch/non-waxy rice starch————[8]
      Konjac glucomannan/ CMC/chitosanCorn starch——(konjac glucomannan, CMC)/↑(chitosan)—↓(konjac glucomannan)/ ↑(CMC)/ —(chitosan)[46]
      Xanthan gum/Guar gumYam starch————[41]
      To, Tp, and Tc represent the gelatinization beginning, highest, and end temperatures, respectively. The ΔH represents enthalpy (the heat energy required by the test starch during the endothermic transition). The arrow (↑, ↓, —) represents an increase/decrease or a no change in temperature, respectively. The letter "N" represents the corresponding parameters not mentioned in the research.

      Table 2. 

      Effect of non-starch polysaccharides on starch gelatinization.

    • Type of non-starch polysaccharideType of starchSome findings and conclusionsReference
      Psyllium(Gluten-free bread) RicePSY reduces the chickpea flour-based bread glycemic response.[86]
      Gellan gumRiceGellan gum reduced starch digestion and GI index.[87]
      Guar gum/sodium alginate xanthan gum/Waxy riceThe NSPs decreased the starch digestion rate.[88]
      Xanthan gumRiceXanthan increased the glycemic index of the mixture.[89]
      Nano-celluloseCornHigher nano-cellulose amounts slow down the initial glucose release rates.[90]
      Carboxymethyl cellulose/ xanthan gum/ guar gumFried-natural fermented
      rice noodles (rice)      		NSPs improve digestion.[72]
      psylliumRice /cassavaThe psyllium decreased starch digestion.[91]
      Nano-fibrillated celluloseCornNSPs reduced the level of hydrolysis glucose.[92]
      CMC/ guar/ xanthan gumHigh amylose riceNSPs decreased the surge of blood glucose.[93]
      PectinCornPectin hindered starch digestion.[62]
      ChitosanWaxy maizeChitosan modification altered starch digestion.[94]
      Guar/ xanthan gum/ sodium alginateWheat/buckwheatThe hydrocolloid's addition reduced starch hydrolysis.[95]
      Xanthan/ guar gum/ pectin/ konjac-glucomannanGelatinized potatoNSPs hindered starch digestion and the extent perform on blood glucose depends highly on the types.[96]
      Locust bean/ guar/ fenugreek/ xanthan/
      flaxseed gum      		CornThe XG showed a prominent effect in interfering with glucose.[97]
      Extracted malva nut gumWheat bread (wheat)MNG-containing breads showed low glucose levels.[98]

      Table 3. 

      Effect of non-starch polysaccharides on starch digestibility.

    • Type of non-starch polysaccharideType of starchRDSSDSRSC∞ (equilibrium concentration)k (kinetic constant)Reference
      XanthanRice↓↑—↓↓[78]
      Creeping fig seed polysaccharidePotato↓↓↑↓↓[79]
      PectinCorn↓↑↑↓↓[80]
      Arabic/ xanthan/ guar gumCorn↓↓/↑(xanthan)↑/↓(xanthan)NN[7]
      Guar gumRice↓↑↑↓↓[8]
      Chitosan/ xanthan/
      sodium alginate      		Wet sweet potato↑(chitosan)/
      ↓(xanthan, SA)      		↑(chitosan, xanthan)/
      ↓(SA)      		↓(chitosan)/
      ↑(xanthan, SA)      		NN[81]
      Guar gumLotus seed↓—↑NN[68]
      Pullulan/pectinFried potato↓↑↑↓↓[60]
      Konjac glucomannanQuinoa/maize↓↓↑NN[82]
      ChitosanLotus seed↓↑—NN[68]
      Hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC)/ carboxymethyl cellulose/ xanthan gum (XG)/ apple pectin (AP)gluten-free potato steamed bread(potato starch)↓↓↑↓↓[83]
      PectinCorn↓↑↑NN[84]
      Cellulose nanocrystalsCorn /pea /potato↓↓↑NN[85]
      PullulanRice↓↑↑↓↓[10]
      High methoxylated pectin/ guar gum/ carboxymethyl cellulose/ xanthan gum/ hydroxypropylmethyl celluloseCorn /potato↑/↓(guar gum in terms of potatoes starch)↓(corn starch)/ —(potatoes starch)—/↓(xanthan and HPMC in terms of corn starch)/
      ↑(potatoes starch exception of HPMC)      		↑(corn starch by adding CMC, potatoes starch by adding guar gum and pectin)/ ↓(xanthan in corn starch)N[11]
      The arrow (↑, ↓, —) represents an increase/decrease or a no change in temperature, respectively. The letter "N" represents the corresponding parameters not mentioned in the research.

      Table 4. 

      Non-starch polysaccharides influence on RDS, SDS, RS and digestion parameters.