Deleterious impacts of tank farms on Delta neighbourhoods: mitigation and environmental matrices

Christopher Ehizemhen Igibah; Idowu Rudolph Ilaboya; Solomon Dibiamaka Iyeke; Emmanuel Ufuah; Omolayo Lucia Agashua; Christopher Ehizemhen Igibah; Idowu Rudolph Ilaboya; Solomon Dibiamaka Iyeke; Emmanuel Ufuah; Omolayo Lucia Agashua

doi:10.48130/EMST-2023-0020

Figures (12) Tables (12)

Figure 1.
Study region showing Koko village in Warri North Local Government Area, Nigeria.
Figure 2.
Niger Delta state population projection based on NPC data and growth rates.
Figure 3.
Typical tank farm and fire pump station.
Figure 4.
Bosean. (a) Airborne particulate. (b) Noise level monitor counter. (c) Multigas monitor.
Figure 5.
Comparison of VOC, NO₂ and SO₂ concentrations with regulatory standards.
Figure 6.
Water attribute scrutiny outcome for: (a) DO, (b) BOD, (c) calcium and (d) TSS.
Figure 7.
(a) Friable poorly sorted loose sandy-silt (0.05–0.002) with moderately frequent roots inclusions and, (b) response PNG-VES data for environmental geophysical investigation.
Figure 8.
Delta soil contents in borehole log.
Figure 9.
Outcome of various conflict issues.
Figure 10.
Graphical displaying of weight and height of the populace in the scrutiny commune.
Figure 11.
Respondent (a) occupations and (b) farmer constraints.
Figure 12.
Outcome of mitigation fundamentals for Delta.

Parameters	Unit	Acronyms	Techniques and instruments
Total Suspended Particle		TSP	Temptop PMD 351Handheld air borne aerosoil meter, (HPPC 6+) sum efficiency –50.0% @0.30µm
Temperature, dew point, relative humidity and wind speed		T (°C), DP, RH and WS	Kestrel 5500 weather meter was utilized for the microclimate measurement.
Heavy metals
Manganese, Lead, Copper, Nickel, Cadmium, Cobalt, Zinc		Mg, Pb, Cu, Ni, Cd, Co, Zn	APHA 3111B, UNICAM 969 AAS
Microbiology (cfu/mi)
Coliform, Ecoli, Staphylococcu, Vibrio, Total coliforms, Aerobic plant count, Yeast & Mould			APHA 9215C
Anions
Nitrate, Nitrite	(mg/l)	${\text{NO}^-_3},\; {\text{NO}^-_2} $	APHA 4500, UN spectrophotometer
Sulphate, Phosphate	(mg/l)	SO₄, ${\text{PO}^{3-}_4} $	APHA 4500B, UN spectrophotometer
Calcium	(mg/l)	Ca	APHA 4500A, UN spectrophotometer
Physico-chemical
Hydrogen ion concentration		pH	pH meter/insitu
Colour	(Pt.Co)		APHA 2120A
Dissolved oxygen	(mg/l)	DO	APHA 5220A, DO meter
Conductivity	(µs/cm)	Cond	APHA 2510A, multi- parameter
Chloride	(mg/l)	Cl⁻	APHA 4500 B, titration
Total dissolve solids	(mg/l)	TDS	APHA 2540A, gravimetric
Total suspended solids	(mg/l)	TSS	APHA 2540D
Appearance			APHA 2110
Acidity	(mg/l)		APHA 2310B
Ammonia Nitrogen	(mg/l)	NH₃C	APHA 4500
Turbidity	(mg/l)	Turb	APHA 2130B, turbidity meter
Bacterial oxygen demand	(mg/l)	BOD	APHA 5210B, Incubator/winkler
Chemical oxygen demand	(mg/l)	COD	APHA 5220D, K2C-207 reflux
Alkalinity	(mg/l)	Alk	APHA 2320B, Titration
Detergent	(mg/l)		APHA 5540C
Oil and grease	(mg/l)		APHA 5520B

Table 1.

Measurement techniques with its water attributes physiognomies.

Parameters	Instrument	Techniques	Above permissible limit health impact
Sulphur IV oxide (SO₂)	SO₂ Gas Alert test meter	Direct reading	Causes irritation of the respiratory tract
Particulate matter (PM)	Gas Alert test meter	Gravimetric	Causes catarrh, cough, lung infections and other respiratory diseases
Combustible gas (CHN)	Gas Alert test meter	Direct reading	Induces a despondent and depressed state
Carbon monoxide (CO)	CO test meter	Direct reading	Lessens the oxygen-carrying blood capability to damage of the central nervous system
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO_X)	NOx test meter	Direct reading	Causes inflammation of the lungs but less toxic
Noise	Noise meter, Rion sound level meter, NA model	Direct Reading

Table 2.

Scrutiny techniques and some health impact of contagions.

Contagions	Health impacts
Contagions	Short term	Long term
Ethylbenzene	Dizziness, eye and throat irritation	Blood disorders
Benzene	Skin blister and irritation, upper respiratory tract	Developmental and reproductive disorders
n-Hexane	Headache, giddiness and nausea.	Blurred vision, fatigue, extremities and headaches Birth defects
Toluene	Sleep difficulty, dizziness, skin and eyes irritation	Nervous system disorder
Xylenes	Nose, gastric and throat irritation, neurological, vomiting and nausea

Table 3.

Some contagions and effects.

Parameter	Unit	NMDPRA/ FMEnv Limit	Sites					Limit (%)
Parameter	Unit	NMDPRA/ FMEnv Limit	A1	A2	A3	A4	A5	Within	Not
Ambient temp	°C	30	31.7	32.4	33.2	32.8	30.7	0	100
Wind velocity	m/s	N/A	2	1.8	1.5	1.9	1.7	−	−
Wind direction		N/A	SW	SW	SW	SW	SW	−	−
Atm. pressure	hPa	N/A	1,011	1,011	1,012	1,011	1,011	−	−
Rel. humidity	%	N/A	72.4	67.2	64.1	66.5	76.9	−	−
Noise level	dBA	80−100	58.7	62.8	52.0	50.5	53.7	100	0
SPM	μg/m³	90/250	69.8	72.7	81.4	70.1	85.4	100	0
NOx	ppm	0.04−0.06	0.026	< 0.001	0.018	0.035	0.02	100	0
SOx	ppm	0.01	0	0	0	0	0	−	−
CO₂	ppm	425	289	296	320	288	279	100	0
CO	ppm	0.03	2	1.65	0.38	1.24	1.96	0	100
H2S	ppm	0.008	0.01	0.01	0.01	0.01	0.01	0	100
VOC	ppm	8.53	0.75	0.58	1.19	1.04	1.92	100	0
Ozone	ppm	N/A	0.05	0.05	0.06	0.06	0.05	−	−
NH₃	ppm	No limit	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	−	−
CH₄	ppm	250	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	−	−

Table 4.

Outcome of ambient air and noise quality at Delta state.

Variables	Unit	Sites			Limits					Compliant status (%)
Variables	Unit	1	2	3	FEPA	WHO	USEPA	NIS	EU	Compliant	Non-within
pH		7.08	7.09	7.07		6.5−8.5			6.5−8.5	100	0
Conductivity	µs/cm	1,694.9	1,695.0	1,695.1	1,000	−	1,000	1,000	2,500	0	100
Calcium	mg/l	109.1	108.9	109.2		−		75		0	100
Phosphate	mg/l	1.01	1.00	1.00	< 5.0	−	−	NS	−	100	0
Ammonia	mg/l	0.48	0.47	0.49				0.05		0	100
TSS	mg/l	0.09	0.08	0.10	< 10	−	−	NS	−	100	0
Temperature	°C	25.4	25.5	25.3				Ambient		100	0
Turbidity	NTU	0.01	0.02	0.01	5	5	5	5	−	100	0
Total acidity	mg/l	61.4	61.3	61.4				NS		−
TDS	mg/l	847.2	847.4	847.3	500	−	500	500	−	0	100
Total hardness	mg/l	272.4	272.3	272.4	200	80-100	−	150	−	0	100
Total alkalinity	mg/l	408.4	408.2	408.3	−	−	−	200	−	0	100
Total solids	mg/l	1,039.9	1,040.2	1,040.3				NS		−
Magnesium	mg/l	39.8	39.7	39.8				20		0	100
Sodium	mg/l	10.7	10.8	10.6				200		100	0
Chloride	mg/l	26.8	26.9	26.7	250	250	250	250	250	100	0
DO	mg/l	2.07	2.06	2.07				2		0	100
Nitrite	mg/l	0.13	0.14	0.12				0.2		100	0
Manganese	mg/l	0.23	0.22	0.21				0.2		0	100
Total iron	mg/l	< 0.01	< 0.01	< 0.01				0.3		100	0
Sulphate	mg/l	50.2	50.3	50.1	500	250	250	250	250	100	0
Silica	mg/l	3.93	3.94	3.92				40		100	0
Salinity	%	0.09	0.08	0.07				NS		−
Nitrate	mg/l	<0.01	<0.01	<0.01	50	50	50	50	50	100	0
Total oil/grease	mg/l	0.08	0.09	0.10				10		100	0
Colour	TCU							15		100	0
Appearance		Colourless			Colourless
Odour		Objectionable			Unobjectionable
Taste		Objectionable			Unobjectionable

Table 5.

Outcome of water attributes.

Parameter	Unit	Site 1	Site 2	Site 3	Mean	Limit
EC	mS	0.87	0.63	0.74	0.74
pH		7.47	7.90	8.21	7.87	6−9
TOC	%	2.12	1.72	2.39	2.08
R/POL	mV	−167.8	−181.2	−298.8	−215.93
Salinity	Psu	0.04	0.03	0.04	0.04
Cl	mg/kg	236.38	165.74	201.06	201.07	100
CO₃	mg/kg	< 0.01	< 0.01	< 0.01	< 0.01
T/N	%	0.09	0.06	0.08	0.08	10
PO₄	mg/kg	1.84	1.29	1.58	1.59
SO₄	mg/kg	11.30	7.93	9.61	9.62	100
NO₃	mg/kg	2.11	1.48	1.65	1.76
NO₂	mg/kg	0.35	0.25	0.27	0.28
NH₄	mg/kg	1.15	0.81	0.90	0.95
Na	mg/kg	53.27	37.35	45.31	45.31
K	mg/kg	16.87	11.82	14.33	14.34
Ca	mg/kg	93.93	65.87	79.70	79.71
Mg	mg/kg	24.23	16.99	20.61	20.62	1.0
THC	mg/kg	< 0.01	< 0.01	< 0.01	< 0.01
TPH	mg/kg	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001
BTEX	mg/kg	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001
Phenol	mg/kg	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001
PAH	mg/kg	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001
THB	cfu/g	5.78	4.74	5.12	5.22
THP	cfu/g	1.56	1.28	1.38	1.41
HUB	cfu/g	2.83	2.33	2.54	2.56
HUF	cfu/g	0.65	0.54	0.58	0.59
Fe	mg/kg	506.69	355.26	130.97	330.98	1.0
SKB	cfu/g	1.97	1.6	1.74	1.78
Cu	mg/kg	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001
Cr	mg/kg	0.64	0.45	< 0.001	0.25
Pb	mg/kg	0.12	0.09	< 0.001	0.10
Cu	mg/kg	92.68	50.96	61.82	68.50	1.0
Ni	mg/kg	4.82	3.45	< 0.001	4.14
V	mg/kg	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001
Zn	mg/kg	265.62	186.24	37.23	163.03	5.0
Hg	mg/kg	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001
Ba	mg/kg	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001

Table 6.

Outcome of physicochemical characteristics of sediments within the study vicinity.

Parameters	Unit	Sites
Parameters	Unit	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	Limit
Sand	%	41.2	34.7	46.3	41.1	86.4	86.3	37.3	33.8
Silt	%	37.3	40.9	36.8	37.5	6.8	6.3	43.1	42.7
Loam	%	21.4	24.4	17.7	21.4	4.8	7.4	19.6	23.3
pH		6.9	7.55	6.22	6.12	6.01	5.99	5.76	6.00	6.5−8.5
EC	mS	0.17	0.09	0.08	0.06	0.05	0.01	0.09	0.07
TOC	%	2.87	2.38	2.64	2.16	0.64	0.47	3.05	2.47
T/N	%	0.07	0.06	0.06	0.05	0.01	0.01	0.07	0.06
NO₃	mg/kg	13.34	7.07	6.27	4.70	3.92	2.35	7.12	4.66
NO₂	mg/kg	1.82	0.91	0.79	0.59	0.49	0.30	0.92	0.58
NH₄	mg/kg	6.94	3.58	3.11	2.33	1.94	11.7	3.55	2.38
Na	mg/kg	5.71	2.96	2.62	1.97	0.84	0.50	3.02	1.97	28.0
K	mg/kg	1.34	0.67	0.58	0.44	0.36	0.22	0.71	0.45	0.05
Ca	mg/kg	13.8	7.28	6.45	4.84	1.03	0.62	7.31	4.85
Mg	mg/kg	44.49	23.40	20.78	15.38	6.99	4.19	23.55	15.60
THB	cfu/g	5.46	3.51	5.04	3.25	1.36	0.97	5.80	3.72
THF	cfu/g	1.47	0.95	1.36	0.87	0.37	NO	1.36	1.08
HUB	cfu/g	2.68	1.72	2.47	1.59	0.67	0.48	2.84	1.82
HUF	cfu/g	0.61	0.39	0.67	0.37	NO	NO	0.65	0.43
Fe	mg/kg	1142	864.5	1719	1214	74	52.03	265.5	311	1.0
Cd	mg/kg	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.067	< 0.058	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001
Cr	mg/kg	2.48	1.96	2.30	1.57	< 0.001	< 0.001	2.78	2.32
Pb	mg/kg	<0 .001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001
Cu	mg/kg	1.68	0.49	0.82	0.78	1.37	1.05	0.58	1.47	0.01
N	mg/kg	3.83	2.96	2.19	1.76	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001
V	mg/kg	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001	< 0.001
Zn	mg/kg	3.83	2.65	3.43	2.47	0.27	0.17	3.90	3.21	0.1
Texture		Loam	Loam	Loam	Loam	Loam	Loam	Loam	Loam

Table 7.

Outcome of soil properties within the study vicinity.

Age (months)	Mean weight (kg)	Mean height (m)	Weight for age (normal range) (kg)
0−11	6.72	0.55	3.5−9.5
12−23	9.18	0.77	9.6−12.3
24−35	11.46	0.91	12.6−14.5
36−47	12.61	0.95	14.6−17.5
48−60	13.97	1.03	17.6−19.5

Table 8.

Weight and height of the populace in the studied community.

Local names	Botanical names	Medicinal uses
Alligator pepper plant	Afromomum melegueta	Sore throat, malaria, purgative
Banana plant	Musa spp.	Fever treatment
Lemon orange	Citrus aurantium	Abdominal upset and a base for other treating malaria
Pawpaw leaves	Carica papaya	Malaria treatment
Cashew fruit, leaf & bark	Amarcadium occidentale	Malaria treatment
Guava tree leaves & bark	Psidium guajava	Treatment of malaria, diarrhoea & menstrual disorders

Table 9.

Common medicinal plants and their uses in the region.

Environmental components	Indicator parameters	Frequency	Responsibility
Soil	pH, salinity, heavy metals, TPH etc.	Monthly	HSE/Regulator
Air quality, noise and Vibration	SO₂, NO₂, CO, VOC, particulate etc.	Weekly	HSE/Regulator
Surface/ground water quality	pH, nutrients content, BOD, suspended solids, hydrocarbon	Monthly	HSE/Regulator
Vegetation	Diversity and abundance of flora and fauna, endangered species	Quarterly	HSE/Regulator
Common health	Contagion diseases within the host communities	Quarterly	Oil & gas medical officer
Components	Techniques	Responsibility	Evidence
Solid waste	Excavation waste should be reused or backfilled. The site should have waste receptacles With bulk storage facilities at convenient Points to prevent littering.	Management	Presence of well-maintained eceptacles and central collection point.
Security	Control of secondary businesses Round the clock security Adequate lighting and an alarm System installed at strategic points	Contractor & Management	Number of business around the site and level of crime in the region.
First Aid	Maintaining of well-stocked first aid kit by qualified personnel	Management	Contents of the first aid kit

Table 10.

Monitoring programme for environmental matrices (components).

Environmental	Proposed mitigation measures	Monitoring indicator
Air contagion	Control speed and operation of vehicles, prohibit idling of vehicles, spray water on dusty areas. Workers should be provided with dust masks when working in sensitive regions.	Amount of dust produced and level
Noise contagion	Maintain plant equipment Workers to wear ear muffs if working in noisy sections. Noise should be kept within reasonable	Amount of noise
Soil erosion & compaction	Provide soils conservation structures on the areas prone to soil. There should be designated pathways and driveways for movement.	Paved and landscaped areas

Table 11.

Impacts and proposed mitigation measures.

Consequence					Increasing probability
Consequence					A	B	C	D	E
Severity	People	Asset damage	Environmental effect	Reputation	Never heard of in the industry	Has occurred in the industry	Incident has occurred in	Happens several times/year	Happens several times/year
0	No injury	None	None	None	Low risk
1	Slight injury	Slight	Slight	Slight
2	Minor injury	Minor	Minor	Limited
3	Major Injury	Localised	Localised	Considerable			Medim risk
4	Single fatality	Major	Major	National
5	Multiple fatalities	Extensive	Massive	International					High risk

Table 12.

Probability trends and impact consequences on the Delta populace.