Figures (4)  Tables (1)

    • Figure 1. 

      Chemical structure of trehalose.

    • Figure 2. 

      Synthesis and degradation of trehalose.

    • Figure 3. 

      Function of trehalose in plant growth and development. Represent promoting; Means inhibiting; Represent promoting; Means inhibiting. However, they are uncertain and need to be verified. NTRC: NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductase C; AGPase: ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase; ABA: Abscisic acid; SnRK1: SNF1-related protein kinase 1; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; ABF2: ABA response element binding factor 2; TPPE: Trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase E; TPPI: Trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase I; TPS1: Trehalose-6-phosphate synthase 1; KIN10: A sugar signaling kinase; PIF4: Phytochrome interacting factor 4; miR156: microRNA 156; SPL: Squamosa promoter binding protein-like.

    • Figure 4. 

      Function of trehalose in the abiotic stress response of plants. Represent promoting; Means inhibiting; Represent promoting; Means inhibiting. However, they are uncertain and need to be verified. AsA: Ascorbic acid; GSH: Reduced glutathione ; GR: Glutathione reductase; SOD: Superoxide dismutase; POD: Peroxidase; CAT: Catalase; APX: Ascorbate peroxidase; MDA: Malondialdehyde; ${\text{O}^-_2} $: Superoxide anion; NR: Nitrate reductase; GO: Glycolate oxidase; GS: Glutamine synthetase; GOCAT: Glutamine oxoglutarate aminotransferase; PYL: Pyrabactin resistance-like; SAPK: Stress activated protein kinase; RAB: Responsive to ABA; DREB: Dehydrationresponsive element-binding protein; MYB: MYB transcription factors; bZIP: bZIP transcription factors; H2O2: Hydrogen peroxide; NO: Nitric oxide; SPS: Sucrose phosphate synthase; SuSy: Sucrose synthase; INV: Invertase; AMF: Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi; PIP: Plasma membrane intrinsic protein.

    • Stress typesRegulatory mechanismsSpeciesTreatmentsReferences
      Drought stressEnhance antioxidant capacityZea mays0 and 30 mM Tre spraying plants[16]
      Helianthus annuus0, 10, 20 and 30 mM Tre spraying plants[101]
      Triticum aestivumMedium + 50 mM Tre[50]
      Raphanus sativus0, 25 and 50 mM Tre soaking seeds and spraying plants[56]
      Ocimum basilicum30 mM Tre and 1 mM SA alone or in combination with irrigating[102]
      Chenopodium quinoa0, 5, 10, 15, 20 mmol·L−1 Tre spraying plants[54]
      Zea mays10 mmol·L−1 Tre spraying plants[55]
      Protect photosynthetic mechanismZea mays0 and 30 mM Tre spraying plants[57]
      Zea mays1% Tre and different forms of zinc spraying plants[58]
      Cause anatomical changes of leavesRaphanus sativus25 mM Tre soaking seeds and spraying plants[59]
      Regulate endogenous ABA level and signal transductionSolanum lycopersicum1.5, 15 and 45 mM Tre spraying plants[63]
      Salt stressEnhance antioxidant capacityOryza sativa25 mM Tre soaking seeds[67]
      Oryza sativaNutrient solution + 10 mM Tre hydroponics[68]
      Zea maysNutrient solution + 10 mM Tre hydroponics[52]
      Arabidopsis thalianaNutrient solution + 0.5, 1 and 5 mM Tre hydroponics[51]
      Cucumis melo2%, 3%, 4%, 5% Tre spraying plants[69]
      Citrullus lanatusNutrient solution + 0, 5, 10, 20 and 30 mM Tre hydroponics[70]
      Protect photosynthetic mechanismFragaria × ananassaNutrient solution + 10, 30 mM Tre irrigating plants[72]
      Oryza sativa0, 10, 20 mM Tre spraying plants[71]
      Co-regulation of stress response with other substancesOryza sativaNutrient solution + 10 mmol·L−1 Tre hydroponics[17]
      Heat stressProtect PSII and regulate plant photosynthesisTriticum aestivumNutrient solution + 1.5 mM Tre hydroponics[18,78,82]
      Regulate plant redox dynamic balance and photosynthesisPaeonia lactiflora30 mmol·L−1 Tre spraying plants[81]
      Cold stressEnhance antioxidant capacityCapsicum annuum5%, 10%, 15% Tre soaking fruit[88]
      Solanum lycopersicum10 mM Tre spraying plants[86]
      Cucumis melo10 mM Tre spraying plants[53,87]
      Zea mays3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 mmol·L−1 Tre irrigating plants[85]
      Osmotic adjustmentOryza sativa0, 0.5, 1 and 2 mM Tre/Spermidine soaking seeds[19]
      Oryza sativaNutrient solution + 5 mM Tre irrigating plants[90]
      Triticum aestivum0, 5, 10, 20, 40, 50 mmol·L−1 Tre soaking seeds and hydroponics[89]
      Regulate nitrogen assimilation and polyamine synthesisTriticum aestivum1, 10, 50 mmol·L−1 Tre spraying plants[91]
      Heavy metal stressEnhance antioxidant capacityOryza sativaNutrient solution + 10 mM Tre hydroponics[94]
      Oryza sativa0, 10, 20, 40, 60 mmol·L−1 Tre hydroponics[95]
      Triticum aestivum0, 25, 50 mM Tre spraying plants[96]
      Nitrogen deficiencyActivate nitrate and ammonia assimilationNicotiana tabacum8 mM Tre spraying plants[100]
      Acid rain stressEnhance antioxidant capacity, maintain the stability of plasma membraneHordeum vulgare0, 5, 10, 15 mM Tre soaking seeds[98]
      Alkali stressEnhance antioxidant capacity, osmotic adjustmentOryza sativa0, 5, 10, 15, 20 mmol·L−1 Tre spraying plants[99]

      Table 1. 

      Roles of trehalose in regulating plant stress resistance.