Exploring the metabolic and flavoromic variations of germinated sunflower seed during roasting conditions

Shuangshuang Guo; Weijie Lan; Xiao Chen; Yan Ge; Shuangshuang Guo; Weijie Lan; Xiao Chen; Yan Ge

doi:10.48130/fmr-0024-0004

Figures (6) Tables (4)

Figure 1.
Biplot of metabolic and flavor profiles of RUSF and RGSF. Compound codes are explained in Table 1 (loading score higher than or equal to 0.7). The sample names represent RUSF described as: u1-1 = 125 °C 30 min, u1-2 = 125 °C 45 min, u1-3 = 125 °C 60 min, u2-1 = 135 °C 30 min, u2-2 = 135 °C 45 min, u2-3 = 135 °C 60 min, u3-1 = 145 °C 30 min, u3-2 = 145 °C 45 min, u3-3 = 145 °C 60 min. The sample names represent RGSF described as: g1-1 = 125 °C 30 min, g1-2 = 125 °C 45 min, g1-3 = 125 °C 60 min, g2-1 = 135 °C 30 min, g2-2 = 135 °C 45 min, g2-3 = 135 °C 60 min, g3-1 = 145 °C 30 min, g3-2 = 145 °C 45 min, g3-3 = 145 °C 60 min
Figure 2.
Heatmap and AHC dendrogram of metabolic and flavor profiles of RUSF and RGSF. The compounds with loading scores higher than 0.7 were presented in the heatmap. Metabolite levels correspond to the color temperature. The higher the temperature (red), the higher the content of the corresponding compound.
Figure 3.
Changes in relative quantification of representative compounds in fraction I. (a) C16:0 FAME, (b) C18:0 FAME, (c) C18:1 FAME, (d) C18:2 FAME, and (e) C18:3 FAME during roasting of ungerminated and germinated sunflower seeds at 125, 135, and 145 °C.
Figure 4.
Changes in relative quantification of representative compounds in fraction II. (a) C16:0 ffa, (b) C18:0 ffa, (c) C18:1 ffa, (d) C18:2 ffa, (e) C18:3 ffa, (f) α-tocopherol, and (g) β-sitosterol during roasting of germinated and ungerminated sunflower seeds at 125, 135, and 145 °C.
Figure 5.
Changes in relative quantification of representative compounds in fraction III. (a) fructose, (b) glucose, (c) sucrose, (d) mannitol during roasting of ungerminated and germinated sunflower seeds at 125, 135, and 145 °C.
Figure 6.
Changes in relative quantification of representative compounds in fraction IV. (a) alanine, (b) glycine, (c) leucine, (d) phenylalanine, (e) serine, (f) threonine, (g) asparagine, and (h) GABA during roasting of germinated and ungerminated sunflower seed at 125, 135, and 145 °C.

PCA code	Compounds	PC1	PCA code	Compounds	PC1
x1	trans-2-Heptenal	0.960	x27	Valine	−0.850
x2	3-Methyl-nonane	0.894	x28	Mannitol	−0.842
x3	Pantoic lactone	0.881	x29	Glycine	−0.832
x4	5-Ethyl-1-nonene	0.871	x30	Glutamine	−0.828
x5	(Z)-2-Octene	0.807	x31	20:1FAME	−0.806
x6	1-Ethyl-1H-pyrrole-2-carboxaldehyde	0.804	x32	β-Aminoisobutyric acid	−0.745
x7	N,N-Dimethylbenzylamine	0.802	x33	Glucose	−0.739
x8	24:0 fatty alcohol	0.798	x34	18:0ffa	−0.701
x9	Methional	0.791
x10	Glutamic acid	0.776			PC2
x11	2-Ethenyl-6-methyl-pyrazine	0.772	x35	Myrtenol	0.846
x12	Methyldisufide	0.751	x36	2-Ethyl-3,5-dimethyl-pyrazine	0.844
x13	(E)-2-Methyl-5-(1-propenyl)-Pyrazine	0.746	x37	p-Cymene	0.840
x14	Methyl ferulate	0.735	x38	2-Heptanone	0.837
x15	2,6-Dimethylheptane	0.717	x39	3-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine	0.831
x16	2,4-Nonadienal,(E,E)-	0.711	x40	3-Methylbutanal	0.813
x17	n-Hexanol	0.710	x41	2-Methylbutanal	0.813
x18	2,4-Dimethyl-1-decene	0.709	x42	4-Methyl-5-propyl-nonane	0.789
x19	Fructose	−0.948	x43	2-Phenyl-2-butenal	0.782
x20	Asparagine	−0.916	x44	1-Tetradecene	0.754
x21	Leucine	−0.914	x45	Dodecane	0.738
x22	20:2FAME	−0.900	x46	2-Methylpyrazine	0.732
x23	GABA	−0.894	x47	2,3-Dimethylpyrazine	0.731
x24	Serine	−0.893	x48	Isobutanal	0.714
x25	Alanine	−0.879	x49	2,4-Dimethyldodecane	−0.778
x26	Phenylalanine	−0.865	x50	2-Ethylhexanol	−0.732

Table 1.

Varimax rotated factor loadings of the significant principal components of the metabolic and flavor profiles of RUSF and RGSF.

Components	RI	Relative concentration (μg/g)
		0	125 °C			135 °C			145 °C
		0	30 min	45 min	60 min	30 min	45 min	60 min	30 min	45 min	60 min
Isobutanal	629	0.21 ± 0.06	0.10 ± 0.03	0.17 ± 0.04	−	0.35 ± 0.09	−	0.36 ± 0.05	−	0.48 ± 0.06	1.22 ± 0.16
3-Methylbutanal	646	0.28 ± 0.07	0.21 ± 0.06	0.31 ± 0.08	1.60 ± 0.43	−	0.19 ± 0.03	0.31 ± 0.04	0.18 ± 0.02	0.26 ± 0.04	0.74 ± 0.10
2-Methylbutanal	662	0.54 ± 0.14	0.27 ± 0.07	−	−	0.55 ± 0.15	0.37 ± 0.05	0.77 ± 0.10	0.25 ± 0.03	0.77 ± 0.10	2.11 ± 0.28
3-Penten-2-one	711	0.45 ± 0.12	0.04 ± 0.01	0.32 ± 0.09	0.19 ± 0.05	0.59 ± 0.16	0.25 ± 0.03	0.42 ± 0.06	0.23 ± 0.03	0.23 ± 0.03	0.67 ± 0.09
Pyridine	717	0.11 ± 0.03	1.51 ± 0.41	1.19 ± 0.32	3.13 ± 0.84	−	0.74 ± 0.10	2.66 ± 0.36	0.92 ± 0.12	2.81 ± 0.38	2.7 ± 0.36
Toluene	751	0.24 ± 0.07	0.15 ± 0.04	0.29 ± 0.08	0.27 ± 0.07	0.19 ± 0.06	0.36 ± 0.05	0.40 ± 0.05	0.17 ± 0.02	0.18 ± 0.03	0.63 ± 0.08
Hexanal	757	1.35 ± 0.36	0.68 ± 0.18	1.35 ± 0.36	3.35 ± 0.09	1.74 ± 0.47	1.00 ± 0.13	1.96 ± 0.26	0.81 ± 0.11	2.50 ± 0.34	8.49 ± 1.14
Octane	796	2.67 ± 0.72	0.13 ± 0.03	0.54 ± 0.15	5.50 ± 1.48	1.77 ± 0.47	0.60 ± 0.08	1.15 ± 0.16	1.09 ± 0.15	−	−
Furfural	800	0.95 ± 0.25	0.57 ± 0.15	0.87 ± 0.23	2.98 ± 0.80	1.92 ± 0.52	1.21 ± 0.16	3.46 ± 0.47	3.63 ± 0.49	5.09 ± 0.68	8.18 ± 1.10
2,3,3-Trimethyl-1,4-pentadiene	805	−	0.12 ± 0.03	0.34 ± 0.09	1.21 ± 0.32	0.87 ± 0.23	0.41 ± 0.06	0.89 ± 0.12	−	0.85 ± 0.11	1.97 ± 0.26
Z-2-Octene	810	−	0.04 ± 0.01	0.26 ± 0.07	0.59 ± 0.16	0.61 ± 0.16	0.35 ± 0.05	0.67 ± 0.09	−	0.75 ± 0.10	1.07 ± 0.14
2,6-Dimethylheptane	828	0.67 ± 0.18	−	−	1.34 ± 0.36	−	0.25 ± 0.03	0.86 ± 0.12	0.12 ± 0.02	0.40 ± 0.05	1.02 ± 0.14
Ethylcyclohexane	830	0.54 ± 0.13	0.22 ± 0.06	0.41 ± 0.11	1.72 ± 0.46	0.68 ± 0.18	0.40 ± 0.05	0.85 ± 0.11	0.25 ± 0.03	0.56 ± 0.07	1.63 ± 0.22
n-Hexanol	849	1.94 ± 0.52	1.23 ± 0.33	0.31 ± 0.08	0.20 ± 0.05	0.63 ± 0.17	0.35 ± 0.05	0.56 ± 0.07	0.16 ± 0.02	0.29 ± 0.04	0.04 ± 0.01
γ-Butyrolactone	850	1.15 ± 0.31	0.30 ± 0.08	0.90 ± 0.24	2.25 ± 0.60	1.36 ± 0.37	0.78 ± 0.10	1.72 ± 0.23	0.37 ± 0.05	1.43 ± 0.19	3.19 ± 0.43
Methional	854	−	0.13 ± 0.04	0.16 ± 0.04	0.59 ± 0.16	0.42 ± 0.11	0.54 ± 0.07	0.64 ± 0.08	0.39 ± 0.05	0.51 ± 0.07	0.64 ± 0.09
2-Methyloctane	863	0.47 ± 0.13	−	0.36 ± 0.10	1.26 ± 0.34	−	0.33 ± 0.04	0.73 ± 0.10	0.29 ± 0.04	0.36 ± 0.05	0.97 ± 0.15
2-Heptanone	866	−	−	−	0.42 ± 0.11	−	−	0.24 ± 0.03	−	0.23 ± 0.03	0.54 ± 0.07
3-Methyl-octane	870	0.26 ± 0.07	0.05 ± 0.01	0.24 ± 0.06	0.81 ± 0.22	0.34 ± 0.09	0.20 ± 0.03	0.49 ± 0.07	0.14 ± 0.02	0.29 ± 0.04	0.96 ± 0.13
2,5-Dimethylpyrazine	885	0.20 ± 0.05	0.99 ± 0.27	0.98 ± 0.28	1.71 ± 0.46	2.47 ± 0.66	0.81 ± 0.11	2.56 ± 0.34	0.54 ± 0.07	5.17 ± 0.69	10.19 ± 1.37
2,3-Dimethylpyrazine	891	−	−	−	−	−	−	−	−	0.55 ± 0.07	1.30 ± 0.17
n-Nonane	899	0.28 ± 0.07	0.06 ± 0.02	0.22 ± 0.06	0.70 ± 0.19	0.37 ± 0.10	0.16 ± 0.02	0.51 ± 0.07	0.14 ± 0.02	0.33 ± 0.04	0.96 ± 0.13
Benzaldehyde	926	0.35 ± 0.09	0.11 ± 0.03	0.16 ± 0.04	0.60 ± 0.16	0.63 ± 0.17	0.36 ± 0.05	0.40 ± 0.05	0.08 ± 0.01	0.87 ± 0.12	0.75 ± 0.10
α-Pinene	930	7.57 ± 2.03	7.05 ± 1.89	12.50 ± 3.4	12.70 ± 3.4	10.79 ± 2.9	6.56 ± 0.88	13.71 ± 1.8	4.72 ± 0.63	10.20 ± 1.4	21.85 ± 2.9
Camphene	943	0.34 ± 0.09	0.06 ± 0.02	0.48 ± 0.13	0.20 ± 0.05	0.41 ± 0.11	0.28 ± 0.04	0.53 ± 0.07	0.17 ± 0.02	0.36 ± 0.05	0. 96 ± 0.13
Thujane-2,4(10)-diene	946	−	0.04 ± 0.01	−	0.61 ± 0.16	−	−	−	0.04 ± 0.00	0.14 ± 0.02	0.35 ± 0.05
Phenol	951	0.27 ± 0.07	0.08 ± 0.02	0.25 ± 0.07	0.55 ± 0.15	0.24 ± 0.06	0.11 ± 0.01	0.29 ± 0.04	0.06 ± 0.01	−	−
1-Octen-3-ol	959	0.27 ± 0.06	0.06 ± 0.02	−	−	0.27 ± 0.06	0.17 ± 0.02	−	0.38 ± 0.05	0.06 ± 0.01	−
β-Phellandrene	965	0.24 ± 0.07	0.15 ± 0.04	0.39 ± 0.10	1.83 ± 0.49	0.48 ± 0.13	0.20 ± 0.03	0.52 ± 0.07	0.13 ± 0.02	0.37 ± 0.05	0.80 ± 0.11
3-Methylnonane	968	0.13 ± 0.03	0.04 ± 0.01	0.14 ± 0.04	0.50 ± 0.13	0.19 ± 0.05	0.10 ± 0.01	0.26 ± 0.04	0.05 ± 0.01	−	−
β-Pinene	970	0.76 ± 0.20	0.16 ± 0.04	0.98 ± 0.26	1.66 ± 0.45	0.85 ± 0.23	0.53 ± 0.07	1.15 ± 0.15	0.37 ± 0.05	1.25 ± 0.17	3.00 ± 0.40
2-Ethyl-3-methylpyrazine	974	0.14 ± 0.04	0.36 ± 0.10	0.54 ± 0.15	0.88 ± 0.24	1.63 ± 0.44	2.27 ± 0.31	2.86 ± 0.38	0.18 ± 0.02	1.96 ± 0.26	3.89 ± 0.52
2-Pentylfuran	976	0.33 ± 0.09	0.21 ± 0.06	0.14 ± 0.04	1.53 ± 0.41	0.54 ± 0.14	0.13 ± 0.02	0.30 ± 0.04	0.07 ± 0.01	0.53 ± 0.07	1.17 ± 0.16
3(E)-3-methyl-3-nonene	981	0.18 ± 0.05	0.07 ± 0.02	0.16 ± 0.04	0.58 ± 0.15	0.29 ± 0.08	0.13 ± 0.02	0.31 ± 0.04	0.07 ± 0.01	0.16 ± 0.02	0.74 ± 0.10
Pantoic lactone	987	0.12 ± 0.03	0.05 ± 0.01	0.06 ± 0.02	−	0.14 ± 0.04	0.07 ± 0.01	0.19 ± 0.03	−	0.32 ± 0.04	0.49 ± 0.07
4-Decene	989	0.32 ± 0.09	0.18 ± 0.05	0.34 ± 0.09	−	0.51 ± 0.14	0.26 ± 0.04	1.03 ± 0.14	0.22 ± 0.03	0.56 ± 0.08	1.84 ± 0.25
Phenylacetaldehyde	1007	0.27 ± 0.07	0.34 ± 0.09	0.77 ± 0.21	1.26 ± 0.22	0.47 ± 0.13	0.13 ± 0.02	0.27 ± 0.04	0.95 ± 0.13	1.25 ± 0.17	1.29 ± 0.17
p-Cymene	1011	0.11 ± 0.03	0.05 ± 0.01	−	0.37 ± 0.10	0.23 ± 0.06	0.07 ± 0.01	0.16 ± 0.02	−	0.33 ± 0.04	0.70 ± 0.09
D-Limonene	1020	0.27 ± 0.07	0.16 ± 0.04	0.28 ± 0.08	1.15 ± 0.31	0.44 ± 0.12	0.20 ± 0.03	0.47 ± 0.06	0.10 ± 0.01	0.17 ± 0.02	0.39 ± 0.05
1,4-Butanediol diacetate	1041	0.92 ± 0.25	0.15 ± 0.04	0.89 ± 0.24	0.71 ± 0.18	1.26 ± 0.30	0.49 ± 0.07	1.50 ± 0.20	0.22 ± 0.03	0.69 ± 0.09	1.68 ± 0.23
2-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine	1053	−	0.19 ± 0.05	0.19 ± 0.04	0.36 ± 0.10	0.30 ± 0.08	0.12 ± 0.02	0.53 ± 0.07	0.07 ± 0.01	1.11 ± 0.15	2.09 ± 0.28
N-allyl- cyclopentanecarboxamide	1056	1.52 ± 0.41	0.58 ± 0.16	1.37 ± 0.37	−	1.71 ± 0.46	1.02 ± 0.14	−	0.67 ± 0.09	−	−
2,4-Dimethyl-1-decene	1065	0.25 ± 0.07	0.12 ± 0.03	0.23 ± 0.06	0.89 ± 0.24	0.27 ± 0.07	0.17 ± 0.02	0.57 ± 0.08	0.11 ± 0.02	0.38 ± 0.05	1.01 ± 0.14
Nonanal	1081	0.32 ± 0.09	0.21 ± 0.06	0.51 ± 0.14	0.79 ± 0.21	0.24 ± 0.06	0.54 ± 0.07	0.63 ± 0.08	0.44 ± 0.06	0.56 ± 0.07	1.06 ± 0.14
6-Ethyl-3-octanone	1083	0.38 ± 0.10	−	−	1.25 ± 0.34	0.48 ± 0.13	0.26 ± 0.03	0.73 ± 0.10	0.16 ± 0.03	0.39 ± 0.05	1.19 ± 0.16
2,6-Dimethylundecane	1120	−	−	−	1.64 ± 0.45	−	−	1.09 ± 0.15	−	0.54 ± 0.07	3.97 ± 0.53
6,6-Dimethylundecane	1140	0.42 ± 0.11	0.22 ± 0.06	0.44 ± 0.12	1.99 ± 0.53	0.84 ± 0.22	0.35 ± 0.05	1.26 ± 0.17	0.19 ± 0.03	0.65 ± 0.09	1.94 ± 0.26
5-Methylundecane	1157	0.28 ± 0.08	0.10 ± 0.02	0.39 ± 0.10	0.74 ± 0.20	0.66 ± 0.18	0.19 ± 0.02	0.51 ± 0.07	0.09 ± 0.01	0.26 ± 0.02	0.74 ± 0.10
3-Methylundecane	1171	−	−	−	0.68 ± 0.18	−	−	0.48 ± 0.06	−	0.26 ± 0.03	0.70 ± 0.09
1-Dodecene	1189	0.27 ± 0.07	0.13 ± 0.03	0.17 ± 0.05	0.45 ± 0.12	0.58 ± 0.16	0.19 ± 0.03	0.49 ± 0.07	0.010 ± 0.01	0.26 ± 0.03	0.67 ± 0.09
Dodecane	1201	0.35 ± 0.10	0.13 ± 0.04	0.34 ± 0.09	0.73 ± 0.19	0.65 ± 0.19	0.20 ± 0.03	0.55 ± 0.07	0.13 ± 0.02	0.31 ± 0.04	0.80 ± 0.11
3-Methyltridecane	1368	−	−	−	−	0.09 ± 0.02	0.10 ± 0.01	−	−	−	−
1-Tetradecene	1388	0.14 ± 0.04	0.07 ± 0.02	0.14 ± 0.04	0.25 ± 0.07	0.40 ± 0.11	0.10 ± 0.01	0.31 ± 0.04	0.12 ± 0.02	0.13 ± 0.01	0.44 ± 0.06
Tetradecane	1399	0.13 ± 0.03	0.06 ± 0.02	0.02 ± 0.00	−	0.19 ± 0.05	0.09 ± 0.01	0.03 ± 0.00	0.01 ± 0.00	0.03 ± 0.01	0.31 ± 0.04
Octyl methacrylate	1424	0.18 ± 0.03	−	0.17 ± 0.05	0.33 ± 0.09	0.35 ± 0.09	0.11 ± 0.01	0.29 ± 0.04	0.06 ± 0.01	0.14 ± 0.02	0.40 ± 0.04
7-Methyltridecane	1429	0.20 ± 0.05	0.08 ± 0.02	0.16 ± 0.04	0.38 ± 0.10	0.40 ± 0.11	0.12 ± 0.02	0.33 ± 0.04	0.06 ± 0.02	0.116 ± 0.02	0.41 ± 0.05
Calarene	1433	0.31 ± 0.08	0.12 ± 0.03	0.33 ± 0.09	0.62 ± 0.17	0.57 ± 0.15	0.20 ± 0.03	0.42 ± 0.06	0.08 ± 0.01	0.24 ± 0.02	0.70 ± 0.09
Chamigrene	1456	0.12 ± 0.03	−	0.12 ± 0.03	−	0.20 ± 0.05	0.07 ± 0.01	−	−	−	−
5,6-Dipropyldecane	1465	0.46 ± 0.12	0.18 ± 0.05	0.39 ± 0.10	−	0.86 ± 0.23	0.27 ± 0.04	−	0.14 ± 0.02	−	−
β-Bisabolene	1499	0.27 ± 0.07	0.03 ± 0.01	0.33 ± 0.09	−	0.42 ± 0.11	0.20 ± 0.03	0.27 ± 0.04	0.07 ± 0.01	0.21 ± 0.03	0.48 ± 0.06

Table 2.

Concentration (μg/g) of volatile components in RUSF roasted from 125, 135, and 145 °C for 30, 45, and 60 min.

Components	RI	Relative concentration (μg/g)
		0	125 °C			135 °C			145 °C
		0	30 min	45 min	60 min	30 min	45 min	60 min	30 min	45 min	60 min
Isobutanal	629	0.21 ± 0.06	0.06 ± 0.02	0.40 ± 0.11	2.39 ± 0.60	−	−	0.55 ± 0.15	2.41 ± 0.65	2.78 ± 0.70	5.77 ± 1.32
3-Methylbutanal	646	0.28 ± 0.04	0.22 ± 0.03	1.22 ± 0.17	5.28 ± 0.75	0.04 ± 0.01	1.80 ± 0.25	1.17 ± 0.17	2.85 ± 0.40	2.58 ± 0.37	3.12 ± 0.44
2-Methylbutanal	662	0.54 ± 0.08	0.29 ± 0.04	1.07 ± 0.15	5.47 ± 0.77	−	2.54 ± 0.36	1.06 ± 0.15	5.11 ± 0.72	6.81 ± 0.96	14.02 ± 1.98
3-Penten-2-one	711	0.45 ± 0.06	0.09 ± 0.01	0.11 ± 0.02	0.40 ± 0.06	−	−	0.46 ± 0.06	0.25 ± 0.03	0.22 ± 0.03	−
Pyridine	717	0.11 ± 0.02	0.03 ± 0.00	−	−	−	−	−	1.06 ± 0.15	0.35 ± 0.05	1.41 ± 0.20
1-Pentanol	744	0.19 ± 0.03	0.03 ± 0.01	0.03 ± 0.01	0.09 ± 0.02	−	0.22 ± 0.04	0.05 ± 0.01	−	0.13 ± 0.02	0.93 ± 0.16
Toluene	751	0.24 ± 0.04	0.11 ± 0.02	0.06 ± 0.01	0.12 ± 0.02	0.09 ± 0.02	0.60 ± 0.10	0.16 ± 0.03	0.09 ± 0.02	0.12 ± 0.02	0.84 ± 0.14
Hexanal	757	1.35 ± 0.23	0.82 ± 0.14	−	1.19 ± 0.20	0.54 ± 0.09	1.33 ± 0.23	1.48 ± 0.25	0.79 ± 0.13	1.29 ± 0.22	3.75 ± 0.64
2-Methylpyrazine	795	−	−	0.40 ± 0.07	2.80 ± 0.48	1.50 ± 0.25	8.58 ± 1.46	4.52 ± 0.77	6.63 ± 1.12	7.82 ± 1.33	24.15 ± 4.10
Octane	796	2.67 ± 0.45	0.24 ± 0.04	0.18 ± 0.03	−	0.28 ± 0.05	0.91 ± 0.15	0.32 ± 0.05	−	−	−
Furfural	800	0.79 ± 0.10	0.37 ± 0.05	0.36 ± 0.05	3.69 ± 0.47	−	−	0.53 ± 0.07	1.33 ± 0.17	21.17 ± 2.70	95.00 ± 12.09
Z-2-Octene	810	−	0.12 ± 0.02	0.10 ± 0.01	−	0.04 ± 0.01	−	0.10 ± 0.01	−	−	−
Furfuryl alcohol	825	−	1.41 ± 0.18	0.24 ± 0.03	−	3.64 ± 0.46	0.13 ± 0.02	−	1.56 ± 0.20	1.27 ± 0.16	−
2,6-Dimethylheptane	828	0.67 ± 0.08	0.17 ± 0.02	−	−	0.05 ± 0.01	0.80 ± 0.10	0.14 ± 0.02	−	−	−
Ethylcyclohexane	830	0.54 ± 0.07	0.22 ± 0.03	0.14 ± 0.02	0.76 ± 0.10	0.12 ± 0.01	0.60 ± 0.08	0.25 ± 0.03	−	0.85 ± 0.11	−
n-Hexanol	849	1.94 ± 0.49	0.06 ± 0.01	0.03 ± 0.01	0.16 ± 0.04	0.04 ± 0.01	0.54 ± 0.14	0.10 ± 0.02	0.08 ± 0.02	−	−
γ-Butyrolactone	850	1.15 ± 0.29	−	−	0.53 ± 0.13	−	−	−	0.36 ± 0.09	0.70 ± 0.18	2.24 ± 0.57
Methional	854	−	−	0.35 ± 0.09	1.09 ± 0.28	−	−	0.45 ± 0.11	0.31 ± 0.08	−	−
2-Methyloctane	863	0.47 ± 0.12	0.20 ± 0.05	−	−	0.09 ± 0.02	1.70 ± 0.43	−	−	−	−
2-Heptanone	866	−	−	0.07 ± 0.02	0.30 ± 0.04	−	−	−	0.24 ± 0.06	0.26 ± 0.07	1.03 ± 0.20
3-Methyloctane	870	0.26 ± 0.07	0.01 ± 0.03	0.08 ± 0.02	0.32 ± 0.08	0.06 ± 0.02	1.06 ± 0.27	0.15 ± 0.04	−	0.32 ± 0.08	−
Heptanal	875	0.13 ± 0.03	0.08 ± 0.02	−	0.01 ± 0.01	0.03 ± 0.01	0.04 ± 0.00	0.02 ± 0.00	−	−	0.02 ± 0.00
2-Acetylfuran	878	−	−	−	0.36 ± 0.04	−	−	−	0.33 ± 0.05	1.07 ± 0.12	−
2,5-Dimethylpyrazine	883	0.20 ± 0.03	0.06 ± 0.01	2.13 ± 0.30	13.15 ± 1.86	−	−	0.44 ± 0.06	13.1 ± 1.85	25.71 ± 3.64	72.55 ± 10.28
Ethylpyrazine	885	−	−	0.49 ± 0.07	2.84 ± 0.40	−	−	−	2.37 ± 0.34	3.99 ± 0.56	−
2,3-Dimethylpyrazine	891	−	−	0.27 ± 0.04	1.82 ± 0.26	−	−	−	1.63 ± 0.23	2.82 ± 0.40	9.58 ± 1.26
n-Nonane	899	0.28 ± 0.04	0.10 ± 0.01	0.11 ± 0.02	0.48 ± 0.07	0.06 ± 0.01	0.76 ± 0.11	0.14 ± 0.02	0.22 ± 0.01	0.33 ± 0.05	−
Benzaldehyde	926	0.35 ± 0.05	0.14 ± 0.03	0.20 ± 0.03	1.34 ± 0.19	0.07 ± 0.01	0.58 ± 0.08	0.21 ± 0.12	0.86 ± 0.15	1.62 ± 0.23	−
α-Pinene	930	7.57 ± 1.07	3.76 ± 0.53	3.58 ± 0.60	11.23 ± 1.59	4.65 ± 0.66	38.85 ± 5.49	10.93 ± 1.55	7.37 ± 1.04	10.93 ± 1.55	33.03 ± 4.67
Camphene	943	0.34 ± 0.05	0.18 ± 0.03	0.17 ± 0.02	0.66 ± 0.09	0.15 ± 0.02	1.65 ± 0.23	0.42 ± 0.06	0.42 ± 0.05	0.33 ± 0.06	3.24 ± 0.46
Thujane-2,4(10)-diene	946	−	0.06 ± 0.01	0.11 ± 0.02	0.45 ± 0.06	0.03 ± 0.00	0.48 ± 0.07	0.17 ± 0.02	0.54 ± 0.08	0.87 ± 0.12	−
Phenol	951	0.27 ± 0.04	−	−	0.18 ± 0.03	−	−	−	0.11 ± 0.02	0.28 ± 0.04	−
1-Octen-3-ol	959	0.27 ± 0.05	−	−	0.20 ± 0.04	−	−	−	6.18 ± 1.14	13.38 ± 2.01	−
β-Phellandrene	965	0.24 ± 0.05	0.10 ± 0.01	0.08 ± 0.02	0.32 ± 0.06	0.10 ± 0.02	1.21 ± 0.22	0.30 ± 0.06	0.16 ± 0.03	−	−
3-Methylnonane	968	0.13 ± 0.02	0.07 ± 0.01	−	−	−	0.40 ± 0.07	−	−	−	−
β-Pinene	970	0.76 ± 0.14	0.37 ± 0.07	0.62 ± 0.11	−	0.40 ± 0.07	4.15 ± 0.76	1.02 ± 0.19	0.26 ± 0.05	−	−
2-Ethyl-3-methylpyrazine	974	0.74 ± 0.11	0.06 ± 0.01	0.99 ± 0.18	6.84 ± 1.26	−	−	0.21 ± 0.04	3.70 ± 0.68	4.11 ± 0.72	−
2-Pentylfuran	976	0.33 ± 0.06	0.16 ± 0.02	0.36 ± 0.07	−	0.05 ± 0.01	0.44 ± 0.08	0.27 ± 0.05	1.70 ± 0.31	−	−
3(E)-3-methyl-3-nonene	981	0.18 ± 0.02	0.08 ± 0.01	0.14 ± 0.03	0.47 ± 0.09	0.04 ± 0.01	0.48 ± 0.08	0.14 ± 0.03	0.27 ± 0.05	0.68 ± 0.13	−
Pantoic lactone	987	0.12 ± 0.02	−	−	−	−	−	−	−	0.44 ± 0.05
4-Decene	989	0.32 ± 0.06	0.26 ± 0.05	−	−	0.04 ± 0.01	1.50 ± 0.28	0.24 ± 0.05	−	−	−
Phenylacetaldehyde	1007	0.27 ± 0.04	0.14 ± 0.02	0.78 ± 0.11	5.15 ± 0.69	0.04 ± 0.01	0.61 ± 0.09	0.41 ± 0.06	1.11 ± 0.16	1.13 ± 0.11	0.77 ± 0.11
p-Cymene	1011	0.11 ± 0.02	−	0.12 ± 0.02	0.88 ± 0.12	−	0.27 ± 0.04	0.18 ± 0.03	0.49 ± 0.07	1.15 ± 0.16	3.73 ± 0.50
D-Limonene	1020	0.27 ± 0.04	0.10 ± 0.01	0.13 ± 0.02	0.26 ± 0.03	0.05 ± 0.01	0.77 ± 0.11	0.26 ± 0.04	0.83 ± 0.12	−	0.69 ± 0.10
2-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine	1053	0.36 ± 0.05	0.02 ± 0.00	0.73 ± 0.10	6.59 ± 0.93	−	−	0.10 ± 0.01	5.84 ± 0.83	16.60 ± 2.35	30.74 ± 4.85
N-allyl- cyclopentanecarboxamide	1056	1.52 ± 0.22	0.65 ± 0.09	0.63 ± 0.09	−	0.38 ± 0.05	−	0.93 ± 0.13	1.31 ± 0.19	2.82 ± 0.40	−
3-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine	1059	−	−	−	0.66 ± 0.09	−	−	−	0.53 ± 0.08	1.78 ± 0.25	3.83 ± 0.54
2,5-Diethylpyrazine	1063	−	−	−	0.27 ± 0.04	−	−	−	0.07 ± 0.01	0.49 ± 0.07	−
2,4-Dimethyl-1-decene	1065	0.25 ± 0.04	0.10 ± 0.01	−	−	0.07 ± 0.01	−	0.16 ± 0.02	0.11 ± 0.02	0.51 ± 0.07	−
1-Methyl-4-isopropenylbenzene	1072	−	−	−	−	−	−	−	0.55 ± 0.08	3.04 ± 0.43	6.89 ± 0.81
Nonanal	1081	0.32 ± 0.07	0.15 ± 0.03	0.15 ± 0.02	0.92 ± 0.19	0.10 ± 0.02	0.76 ± 0.16	0.24 ± 0.04	0.35 ± 0.07	1.96 ± 0.42	−
2-Acetyl-3-methylpyrazine	1085	−	−	−	−	−	−	−	−	1.85 ± 0.39	3.08 ± 0.65
5-Ethyl-1-nonene	1086	−	0.18 ± 0.04	0.16 ± 0.03	0.79 ± 0.17	0.11 ± 0.02	1.00 ± 0.19	0.25 ± 0.05	0.40 ± 0.09	−	−
2,6-Dimethylundecane	1120	−	−	−	1.20 ± 0.20	−	1.20 ± 0.25	−	−	−	−
Verbenol	1128	−	0.38 ± 0.10	0.47 ± 0.12	2.62 ± 0.42	0.23 ± 0.06	1.92 ± 0.49	0.64 ± 0.16	1.11 ± 0.28	2.87 ± 0.65	4.07 ± 1.04
2,3-Diethyl-5-methylpyrazine	1133	−	−	−	0.49 ± 0.13	−	−	−	0.31 ± 0.08	1.33 ± 0.34	1.79 ± 0.46
2,6-Diethyl-3-methylpyrazine	1135	0.39 ± 0.10	0.15 ± 0.04	−	−	0.11 ± 0.04	−	0.23 ± 0.01	0.85 ± 0.22	2.69 ± 0.57
6,6-Dimethylundecane	1140	0.42 ± 0.11	0.22 ± 0.05	0.22 ± 0.06	1.24 ± 0.32	0.10 ± 0.02	1.56 ± 0.09	0.33 ± 0.08	0.46 ± 0.12	1.26 ± 0.15	−
5-Methylundecane	1157	0.28 ± 0.03	0.10 ± 0.02	0.10 ± 0.02	0.30 ± 0.08	0.09 ± 0.02	0.68 ± 0.15	0.14 ± 0.04	0.28 ± 0.07	0.83 ± 0.21	−
2-Methyl-5-[(1E)-1-propenyl]pyrazine	1160	−	−	−	−	−	−	−	0.45 ± 0.12	1.85 ± 0.47	−
Myrtenal	1170	−	−	−	−	−	−	−	0.18 ± 0.05	0.73 ± 0.10	−
3-Methylundecane	1171	−	−	−	0.64 ± 0.12	−	0.48 ± 0.16	−	0.20 ± 0.05	0.79 ± 0.15	1.93 ± 0.49
1,4-Butanediol diacetate	1177	0.92 ± 0.23	0.03 ± 0.01	0.04 ± 0.01	0.75 ± 0.19	0.04 ± 0.01	0.12 ± 0.03	0.05 ± 0.01	0.25 ± 0.06	1.31 ± 0.33	−
Myrtenol	1178	−	0.19 ± 0.05	0.21 ± 0.02	0.67 ± 0.17	−	0.44 ± 0.11	0.17 ± 0.02	0.50 ± 0.01	0.80 ± 0.02	1.26 ± 0.32
2,5-Dimethyl-3-(2-methylpropyl)-pyrazine	1181	−	−	−	0.39 ± 0.02	−	0.43 ± 0.11	−	−	0.37 ± 0.09	−
1-Dodecene	1189	0.27 ± 0.07	0.06 ± 0.02	0.11 ± 0.03	0.79 ± 0.15	0.09 ± 0.01	0.41 ± 0.10	0.13 ± 0.03	0.24 ± 0.04	1.04 ± 0.26	−
Dodecane	1201	0.35 ± 0.09	0.10 ± 0.01	0.09 ± 0.02	0.75 ± 0.19	0.10 ± 0.03	0.40 ± 0.10	0.15 ± 0.02	0.27 ± 0.07	0.88 ± 0.19	2.03 ± 0.36
3-Methyl-2(E)-undecene	1203	0.12 ± 0.02	−	−	−	0.04 ± 0.01	−	0.03 ± 0.00	−	0.34 ± 0.05	−
3-Methyltridecane	1368	−	−	−	−	−	−	−	0.07 ± 0.01	0.32 ± 0.04	−
1-Tetradecene	1388	0.14 ± 0.02	0.07 ± 0.01	0.10 ± 0.01	0.48 ± 0.07	0.05 ± 0.01	0.15 ± 0.02	0.07 ± 0.01	0.11 ± 0.02	0.73 ± 0.10	−
Tetradecane	1399	0.13 ± 0.02	−	−	0.20 ± 0.03	0.01 ± 0.00	−	−	0.02 ± 0.00	0.21 ± 0.03	−
Octyl methacrylate	1424	0.18 ± 0.03	0.07 ± 0.01	0.07 ± 0.01	0.47 ± 0.05	0.05 ± 0.01	0.20 ± 0.03	0.08 ± 0.01	0.14 ± 0.02	0.56 ± 0.08	−
7-Methyltridecane	1429	0.20 ± 0.03	0.07 ± 0.01	0.08 ± 0.01	0.56 ± 0.08	0.06 ± 0.01	0.24 ± 0.02	0.08 ± 0.01	0.16 ± 0.03	0.65 ± 0.12
Calarene	1433	0.31 ± 0.04	0.12 ± 0.02	0.09 ± 0.01	0.74 ± 0.10	0.12 ± 0.02	0.56 ± 0.15	0.19 ± 0.02	0.23 ± 0.03	0.78 ± 0.11	−
Chamigrene	1456	0.12 ± 0.02	0.04 ± 0.01	−	−	−	−	−	−	0.23 ± 0.03	−
5,6-Dipropyldecane	1465	0.46 ± 0.05	0.16 ± 0.02	0.17 ± 0.03	0.37 ± 0.05	0.14 ± 0.02	−	0.18 ± 0.03	−	0.40 ± 0.06	−
β-Bisabolene	1499	0.27 ± 0.04	0.10 ± 0.01	0.09 ± 0.02	0.83 ± 0.12	0.15 ± 0.02	0.64 ± 0.09	0.20 ± 0.03	0.19 ± 0.04	0.77 ± 0.11	0.26 ± 0.04

Table 3.

Concentrations (μg/g) of volatile components in RGSF roasted from 125, 135, and 145 °C for 30, 45, and 60 min.

Compounds	Odor quality	RUSF seeds	RGSF seeds
Pyrazines
2,5-Dimethylpyrazine	Roasty, flowery, cocoa	5,7,9,10	3,4,8.9,10
2,3-Dimethylpyrazine	Nut, peanut, cocoa, meat	9,10	3,4,8,9,10
3-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine	Potato, roast	N	4,8,9,10
2-Ethyl-3-methylpyrazine	Nutty, cereal like	1,2, 3,4,5,6,7,8,9	1,3,4,7,8,9
2-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine	Nutty	2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10	1,2,3,4,7,8,9,10
Aldehydes
2-Methylbutanal	Cocoa, almond	1,2,5,6,7,8,9,10	1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9,10
3-Methylbutanal	Malt	1,2,4,6.7.8,9,10	1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
Hexanal	Green, fatty	1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10	1,2,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
Furfural	Bread, almond, sweet	7,8,9,10	4,9,10
Heptanal	Fat, citrus, rancid	N	N
Nonanal	Fatty, green	1,3,4,6,7,8,9,10	1,4,6.8.9
Benzaldehyde	Almond, sugar	N	N
Phenylacetaldehyde	Flowery, honey like	1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10	1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
Ketones
2-Heptanone	Soap	N	N
ɣ-Butyrolactone	Creamy	1,4,5,7,9,10	10
Alcohols
1-Pentanol	Balsamic	5	10
1-Hexanol	Resin, flower, green	1,2,5,7	1,6
Furfuryl alcohol	Sweet, caramellic	N	5
Pyridine	Burnt, smoky	4,7,9,10	N
Sulfur compounds
Dimethyl disulfide	Onion, cabbage, putrid	N	9,10
Methional	Cooked, potato	2,3,4,7,8,9,11,12,13	3,4,7,8
Others
α-Pinene	Pine, turpentine	1,2,3,5 ,6,9,11,12,13	1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
2-Acetylfuran	Peanut, sweet	N	N
Number representation: 1 (raw seed), 2 (125 °C 30 min), 3 (125 °C 45 min), 4 (125 °C 60 min), 5 (135 °C 30 min), 6 (135 °C 45 min), 7 (135 °C 60 min), 8 (145 °C 30 min), 9 (145 °C 45 min), 10 (145 °C 60 min).

Table 4.

Key odorants content obtained from RUSF and RGSF which were roasted at 125, 135, and 145 °C for 30, 45, and 60 min.