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Figure 1.
Rainfall characteristic during 2019/20–2021/22 cropping seasons in the Muzokomba area.
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Figure 2.
Total rainfall (mm) distribution according to maize growth stages in the years of 2019/20–2021/22. P-E: Planting to Emergence; E-T: Emergence to Tassling; T-SK: Tassling to Silking; SK-PM: Silking to Physiological maturity and Dry-P: Dry-down period.
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Parameter Soil Cattle manure Sand (%) 78 ± 2.3 2 ± 0.1 Silt (%) 18 ± 2.3 0.7 ± 0.2 Clay (%) 3 ± 2.3 0.01 ± 001 pH (H2O) 4.2 ± 1.2 6.98 ± 0.3 EC (dSm−1) 4.1 ± 0.03 8.12 ± 0.1 CEC (cmol(+)kg−1) 8.0 ± 0.5 314.2 ± 0.8 Total C (%) 0.7 ± 0.04 30.5 ± 0.4 Total N (%) 0.5 ± 0.03 4.16 ± 0.2 C:N ratio 0.3 ± 0.01 8.8 ± 0.7 Olsen extractable P (mg kg−1) 55.0 ± 7.3 620.4 ± 17.8 Extractable NO2/NO3 (mg kg−1) 29.2 ± 2.04 980.5 ± 8.7 Extractable NH4 (mg kg−1) 98.4 ± 0.8 386.3 ± 2.8 K (mg kg−1) 6.4 ± 0.6 3.2 ± 0.5 Ca (cmol(+) kg−1) 0.3 ± 0.05 27.1 ± 2.5 Mg (cmol(+) kg−1) 24.5 ± 1.9 10.8 ± 2.1 Na (cmol(+) kg−1) 0.45 ± 0.03 2.6 ± 0.7 Cu (cmol(+) kg−1) 110.1 ± 36.1 305.2 ± 38.6 Zn (cmol(+) kg−1) 70.2 ± 6.9 412.8 ± 0.6 Bulk density (kg cm−3) 1.52 ± 0.8 − EC, electrical conductivity; CEC, cation exchange capacity. Data are means ± standard error of the means for three replicates. Table 1.
The initial chemical properties of the soil at the Muzokomba area, experimental field and cattle manure used in the study.
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Year Treatments Soil water storage (mm) P-E E-T T-SK SK-PM Dry-P 2020 NT0% 255.2 ± 5a 240.6 ± 4a 201.3 ± 5a 176.8 ± 6a 181.4 ± 7a NTLM 269.5 ± 8b 252.2 ± 3b 236.1 ± 3b 196.2 ± 4b 205.0 ± 2b NTSM 272.1 ± 6b 258.0 ± 5b 238.3 ± 6b 198.1 ± 5b 226.1 ± 2b NTHM 284.3 ± 7c 269.3 ± 7c 249.2 ± 8c 216.4 ± 7c 231.0 ± 6c T0% 254.2 ± 5a 242.2 ± 4a 200.2 ± 5a 177.8 ± 6a 183.4 ± 7a TLM 288.6 ± 2c 270.6 ± 2c 246.4 ± 2c 220.6 ± 8c 233.2 ± 1c TSM 299.1 ± 4d 281.1 ± 4d 259.1 ± 4d 228.5 ± 1d 249.1 ± 4d THM 299.3 ± 7d 293.3 ± 7d 261.0 ± 5d 230.6 ± 8d 250.1 ± 3d 2021 NT0% 254.1 ± 5a 242.5 ± 4a 202.3 ± 4a 175.6 ± 6a 183.4 ± 6a NTLM 266.4 ± 6b 255.4 ± 6b 236.1 ± 3b 196.2 ± 4b 206.1 ± 5b NTSM 270.2 ± 4b 256.2 ± 4b 238.3 ± 6b 198.1 ± 5b 228.2 ± 7b NTHM 285.1 ± 3c 265.1 ± 3c 248.1 ± 5c 216.4 ± 7c 239.1 ± 6c T0% 256.2 ± 5a 243.5 ± 4a 201.3 ± 5a 175.7 ± 6a 180.4 ± 6a TLM 286.6 ± 2c 288.6 ± 2b 246.4 ± 2c 221.0 ± 5c 241.3 ± 1c TSM 294.1 ± 4d 290.1 ± 4b 258.3 ± 7d 226.6 ± 3d 254.2 ± 4d THM 302.5 ± 8d 302.5 ± 8c 260.3 ± 2d 233.4 ± 9d 258.0 ± 8d 2022 NT0% 254.2 ± 4a 241.5 ± 4a 201.2 ± 4a 175.6 ± 5a 180.4 ± 7a NTLM 266.5 ± 8b 249.2 ± 2b 238.4 ± 6b 198.3 ± 1b 204.6 ± 1b NTSM 270.1 ± 6b 254.0 ± 1b 237.2 ± 8b 196.0 ± 3b 226.1 ± 6b NTHM 266.3 ± 7c 264.3 ± 5c 250.1 ± 6c 217.2 ± 8c 253.0 ± 5c T0% 253.2 ± 4a 240.6 ± 4a 200.3 ± 4a 175.8 ± 5a 180.4 ± 5a TLM 285.6 ± 2c 265.2 ± 7c 247.3 ± 9c 219.8 ± 6c 255.2 ± 7c TSM 298.1 ± 4d 279.2 ± 3d 260.4 ± 6d 226.4 ± 2d 266.3 ± 4d THM 301.3 ± 7d 283.4 ± 2d 265.2 ± 3d 231.2 ± 5d 267.0 ± 5d Values in the same column and same year followed by different letters indicate significant differences (Duncan p < 0.05). Table 2.
Soil water storage at 0–120 cm soil profile as influenced by manure management.
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Year Treatments Dry matter accumulation (t ha−1) Grain yield (t ha−1) P-E E-T T-SK SK-PM Dry-P 2020 NT0% 1.1 ± 0.1a 9.0 ± 1.2a 29.5 ± 2.6a 58.6 ± 2.2a 20.1 ± 2.3a 0.2 ± 0.01a NTLM 1.2 ± 0.2a 16.4 ± 2.0b 52.8 ± 3.1b 76.4 ± 3.0b 30.6 ± 3.2b 0.4 ± 0.01b NTSM 1.2 ± 0.2a 18.7 ± 3.2c 65.6 ± 3.3c 87.4 ± 3.2c 40.8 ± 3.1c 0.6 ± 0.1c NTHM 1.3 ± 0.3a 23.5 ± 3.0d 76.3 ± 3.0d 96.2 ± 3.1d 52.4 ± 3.2d 0.8 ± 0.3d T0% 1.2 ± 0.1a 8.0 ± 1.1a 28.5 ± 2.5a 56.6 ± 2.1a 20.1 ± 2.2a 0.2 ± 0.01a TLM 1.4 ± 0.3a 22.7 ± 3.0d 80.3 ± 2.3d 100.8 ± 3.1d 53.2 ± 2.1d 0.9 ± 0.3d TSM 1.4 ± 0.3a 32.3 ± 3.1e 120.4 ± 3.2e 154.6 ± 3.3e 72.6 ± 3.0e 1.2 ± 0.5e THM 1.6 ± 0.3a 33.6 ± 3.1e 125.7 ± 3.8e 160.3 ± 3.5e 75.4 ± 3.2e 2.4 ± 0.7e 2021 NT0% 1.1 ± 0.2a 8.0 ± 1.1a 28.5 ± 2.5a 59.6 ± 2.1a 21.1 ± 2.2a 0.2 ± 0.01a NTLM 1.2 ± 0.1a 16.6 ± 2.1b 50.9 ± 3.0b 77.1 ± 3.1b 31.8 ± 3.1b 0.5 ± 0.1b NTSM 1.2 ± 0.3a 17.9 ± 3.0c 66.6 ± 3.2c 86.8 ± 3.1c 42.2 ± 3.2c 0.6 ± 0.1c NTHM 1.3 ± 0.2a 24.4 ± 3.2d 75.4 ± 3.2d 97.2 ± 3.0d 45.7 ± 3.3d 0.7 ± 0.3d T0% 1.2 ± 0.1a 9.0 ± 1.3a 28.5 ± 2.6a 57.5 ± 2.2a 20.1 ± 2.3a 0.3 ± 0.01a TLM 1.3 ± 0.2a 23.3 ± 3.1d 78.1 ± 2.1d 103.2 ± 3.2d 35.5 ± 2.0d 1.2 ± 0.5e TSM 1.4 ± 0.2a 31.4 ± 3.2e 119.5 ± 3.0e 153.4 ± 3.2e 38.8 ± 3.2e 1.4 ± 0.5e THM 1.3 ± 0.2a 32.8 ± 3.0e 124.6 ± 3.5e 158.9 ± 3.3e 37.3 ± 3.1e 2.8 ± 0.7f 2022 NT0% 1.1 ± 0.1a 9.1 ± 1.2a 28.5 ± 2.6a 57.5 ± 2.2a 20.0 ± 2.1a 0.2 ± 0.01a NTLM 1.3 ± 0.3a 15.1 ± 2.2b 52.3 ± 3.2b 77.8 ± 3.1b 32.3 ± 3.1b 0.4 ± 0.1b NTSM 1.2 ± 0.2a 19.4 ± 3.1c 66.8 ± 3.2c 88.5 ± 3.5c 41.6 ± 3.0c 0.7 ± 0.1c NTHM 1.3 ± 0.1a 24.5 ± 3.1d 78.2 ± 3.1d 97.3 ± 3.0d 45.7 ± 3.1d 0.7 ± 0.3c T0% 1.1 ± 0.1a 9.1 ± 1.3a 29.4 ± 2.5a 57.5 ± 2.1a 20.1 ± 2.1a 0.2 ± 0.01a TLM 1.9 ± 0.2b 25.2 ± 3.2d 82.4 ± 2.6d 101.5 ± 3.2d 47.6 ± 2.0d 1.3 ± 0.8e TSM 2.4 ± 0.2c 31.6 ± 3.2d 121.5 ± 3.1d 155.3 ± 3.2d 48.4 ± 3.1d 2.9 ± 0.8f THM 2.6 ± 0.3c 32.7 ± 3.0e 126.0 ± 3.3e 162.1 ± 3.0e 47.3 ± 3.0e 3.2 ± 0.9g Values in the same column and same year followed by different letters indicate significant differences (Duncan p < 0.05). Table 3.
Effect of manure management on dry matter accumulation at different growth stages and grain yield of maize.
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Year Treatments Rainfall use efficiency (kg ha−1 mm−1) Grain yield (t ha−1) P-E E-T T-SK SK-PM Dry-P 2020 NT0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 14.9 ± 4.2a 31.6 ± 3.2a 17.4 ± 2.1a 0.56 ± 2.1a NTLM 0.8 ± 0.1a 9.2 ± 2.1b 28.5 ± 3.3b 42.4 ± 3.0b 28.2 ± 3.1b 1.17 ± 2.1a NTSM 0.8 ± 0.2a 10.1 ± 3.2c 36.4 ± 3.2c 48.1 ± 3.1c 22.7 ± 3.2c 1.75 ± 0.6b NTHM 0.9 ± 0.1a 12.3 ± 3.1d 41.2 ± 4.2d 53.4 ± 3.3d 48.0 ± 3.3d 2.33 ± 1.1c T0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 15.9 ± 4.2a 32.6 ± 3.2a 18.4 ± 2.1a 0.58 ± 2.1a TLM 1.2 ± 0.2a 12.8 ± 3.1d 43.9 ± 4.3d 56.0 ± 3.2d 48.9 ± 3.2d 2.63 ± 1.2c TSM 1.2 ± 0.2a 18.2 ± 3.2e 65.1 ± 4.4e 85.9 ± 3.4e 66.5 ± 3.1e 3.51 ± 1.3d THM 1.4 ± 0.2a 19.0 ± 3.2e 67.9 ± 4.2e 89.0 ± 3.6f 69.0 ± 3.0e 7.01 ± 1.5f 2021 NT0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 15.6 ± 4.1a 31.5 ± 3.2a 17.4 ± 2.1a 0.55 ± 2.1a NTLM 0.8 ± 0.1a 8.8 ± 2.2b 28.1 ± 3.1b 44.9 ± 3.2b 36.2 ± 3.0b 1.40 ± 0.8a NTSM 0.8 ± 0.2a 9.5 ± 3.1c 36.8 ± 3.0c 50.6 ± 3.2c 41.0 ± 3.0c 1.68 ± 0.9b NTHM 0.9 ± 0.2a 12.9 ± 3.2d 41.6 ± 4.1d 56.7 ± 3.1d 43.8 ± 3.0d 1.96 ± 0.9b T0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 16.2 ± 4.2a 36.2 ± 3.2a 19.3 ± 2.1a 0.59 ± 2.1a TLM 0.9 ± 0.1a 12.3 ± 3.2d 43.1 ± 4.1d 60.2 ± 3.1d 43.9 ± 3.0d 3.37 ± 1.2d TSM 1.0 ± 0.1a 16.6 ± 3.1e 66.0 ± 4.0e 89.4 ± 3.2f 42.9 ± 3.2e 3.93 ± 1.2d THM 0.9 ± 0.1a 17.4 ± 3.2e 68.8 ± 4.1e 92.6 ± 3.2f 42.4 ± 2.9e 7.86 ± 1.6f 2022 NT0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 14.9 ± 4.2a 33.5 ± 3.2a 17.3 ± 2.1a 0.56 ± 2.1a NTLM 0.9 ± 0.1a 9.2 ± 2.1b 30.1 ± 2.9b 41.8 ± 3.2b 33.3 ± 3.0b 1.14 ± 0.7a NTSM 0.9 ± 0.2a 11.8 ± 2.1c 38.5 ± 3.1c 47.5 ± 3.0c 43.0 ± 3.1c 1.99 ± 0.9b NTHM 0.8 ± 0.1a 15.0 ± 3.1e 45.0 ± 4.0d 52.2 ± 3.2d 46.7 ± 3.2d 1.99 ± 0.9b T0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 15.9 ± 4.2a 32.6 ± 3.2a 18.4 ± 2.1a 0.58 ± 2.1a TLM 1.3 ± 0.1a 15.3 ± 3.2e 44.2 ± 3.8d 54.5 ± 3.1d 47.2 ± 3.0d 3.70 ± 1.2d TSM 1.6 ± 0.2a 19.3 ± 4.2e 70.0 ± 4.2e 83.6 ± 3.5e 49.2 ± 3.0de 8.26 ± 1.2f THM 1.7 ± 0.2b 20.0 ± 4.1ef 72.6 ± 4.1e 87.0 ± 3.0e 50.0 ± 2.8e 9.12 ± 1.6g Values in the same column and same year followed by different letters indicate significant differences (Duncan p < 0.05). Table 4.
Effect of manure management on rainfall use efficiency at different growth stages of maize.
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Parameter Control Low manure Medium manure High manure 2020 2021 2022 2020 2021 2022 2020 2021 2022 Sand (%) 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 Silt (%) 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 Clay (%) 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 pH (H2O) 4.1 ± 2.1 4.3 ± 2.0 4.4 ± 2.1 4.3 ± 2.1 5.1 ± 0.3 5.3 ± 2.2 5.8 ± 2.1 6.2 ± 2.2 6.6 ± 2.0 6.6 ± 2.2 EC(dSm−1) 6.2 ± 0.23 7.2 ± 0.6 7.6 ± 0.7 7.8 ± 0.6 9.1 ± 0.2 9.0 ± 0.3 9.6 ± 0.3 11.2 ± 0.6 15.1 ± 0.7 19.1 ± 0.7 CEC (cmol(+) kg−1) 4.3 ± 1.4 8.3 ± 1.4 8.2 ± 1.4 8.1 ± 1.3 19.2 ± 1.2 18.8 ± 1.3 21.1 ± 1.2 21.3 ± 1.5 23.1 ± 1.4 28.2 ± 1.5 Total C (%) 0.4 ± 0.01 0.8 ± 0.02 0.9 ± 0.01 0.8 ± 0.03 1.1 ± 0.3 1.2 ± 0.2 1.4 ± 0.3 1.2 ± 0.8 1.6 ± 0.8 2.2 ± 0.7 Total N (%) 0.2 ± 0.02 0.5 ± 0.02 0.6 ± 0.02 0.5 ± 0.02 0.6 ± 0.01 0.6 ± 0.02 0.9 ± 0.02 0.9 ± 0.03 1.6 ± 0.3 2.9 ± 0.3 C:N ratio 0.5 ± 0.01 0.6 ± 0.01 0.7 ± 0.01 0.6 ± 0.01 0.5 ± 0.7 0.5 ± 0.6 0.5 ± 0.7 0.8 ± 0.1 0.8 ± 0.1 0.8 ± 0.1 Olsen extractable P
(mg kg−1)55.0 ± 5.2 60.0 ± 5.3 59.0 ± 5.0 60.0 ± 5.3 82.4 ± 8.8 81.0 ± 9.2 87.0 ± 9.2 56.0 ± 5.2 60.0 ± 5.2 65.0 ± 5.2 Extractable NO2/NO3
(mg kg−1)25.1 ± 2.0 122.1 ± 2.0 123.1 ± 2.2 122.1 ± 2.2 250.5 ± 6.7 251.0 ± 7.0 258.3 ± 6.0 258.1 ± 7.0 265.1 ± 6.1 273.1 ± 7.1 Extractable NH4
(mg kg−1)96.2 ± 0.5 109.1 ± 0.9 108.0 ± 0.9 109.2 ± 0.8 376.2 ± 2.7 377.3 ± 2.8 381.2 ± 2.6 397.5 ± 0.6 418.2 ± 0.7 438.2 ± 0.8 K (mg kg−1) 6.4 ± 0.4 4.5 ± 0.7 4.3 ± 0.6 3.9 ± 0.6 4.8 ± 0.4 4.6 ± 0.5 5.3 ± 0.7 3.6 ± 0.3 6.2 ± 0.4 10.1 ± 0.5 Ca (cmol(+) kg−1) 0.3 ± 0.03 27 ± 4.1 26.9 ± 4.2 27.0 ± 4.1 30.3 ± 2.4 31.2 ± 2.4 39.2 ± 2.5 41.0 ± 4.4 42.2 ± 4.1 45.2 ± 3.5 Mg (cmol(+) kg−1) 20.6 ± 1.2 11.3 ± 1.4 11.3 ± 1.3 10.9 ± 1.8 10.6 ± 2.0 10.1 ± 1.6 11.5 ± 1.6 9.5 ± 1.1 8.0 ± 1.0 13.2 ± 1.4 Na (cmol(+) kg−1) 0.3 ± 0.01 2.4 ± 0.02 2.5 ± 0.01 2.5 ± 0.02 3.6 ± 0.7 3.7 ± 0.8 4.0 ± 0.9 3.9 ± 0.6 4.1 ± 0.3 5.1 ± 0.4 Cu (cmol(+) kg−1) 111 ± 9.8 201 ± 25.8 204. ± 25.8 202 ± 25.8 315 ± 38.6 312 ± 20.1 328 ± 20.2 351 ± 22.6 356 ± 22.7 360 ± 25.6 Zn (cmol(+) kg−1) 64.1 ± 5.5 330.6 ± 2.9 331.6 ± 4.1 332.3 ± 3.1 416.9 ± 0.8 415.6 ± 0.9 417.7 ± 0.8 432.6 ± 5.3 433.6 ± 5.4 438.2 ± 5.2 Bulk density (kg cm−3) 1.53 ± 0.8 1.48 ± 0.6 1.46 ± 0.6 1.42 ± 0.6 1.45 ± 0.7 1.32 ± 0.6 1.28 ± 0.8 1.32 ± 0.6 1.10 ± 0.6 0.80 ± 0.4 EC, electrical conductivity; CEC, cation exchange capacity. Data are means ± standard error of the means for three replicates. Table 5.
Soil nutrients and soil organic matter in tied-ridged plots as a function of the different manure treatments during 2020–2022.
Figures
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Tables
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