Figures (2)  Tables (5)
    • Figure 1. 

      Rainfall characteristic during 2019/20–2021/22 cropping seasons in the Muzokomba area.

    • Figure 2. 

      Total rainfall (mm) distribution according to maize growth stages in the years of 2019/20–2021/22. P-E: Planting to Emergence; E-T: Emergence to Tassling; T-SK: Tassling to Silking; SK-PM: Silking to Physiological maturity and Dry-P: Dry-down period.

    • Parameter Soil Cattle manure
      Sand (%) 78 ± 2.3 2 ± 0.1
      Silt (%) 18 ± 2.3 0.7 ± 0.2
      Clay (%) 3 ± 2.3 0.01 ± 001
      pH (H2O) 4.2 ± 1.2 6.98 ± 0.3
      EC (dSm−1) 4.1 ± 0.03 8.12 ± 0.1
      CEC (cmol(+)kg−1) 8.0 ± 0.5 314.2 ± 0.8
      Total C (%) 0.7 ± 0.04 30.5 ± 0.4
      Total N (%) 0.5 ± 0.03 4.16 ± 0.2
      C:N ratio 0.3 ± 0.01 8.8 ± 0.7
      Olsen extractable P (mg kg−1) 55.0 ± 7.3 620.4 ± 17.8
      Extractable NO2/NO3 (mg kg−1) 29.2 ± 2.04 980.5 ± 8.7
      Extractable NH4 (mg kg−1) 98.4 ± 0.8 386.3 ± 2.8
      K (mg kg−1) 6.4 ± 0.6 3.2 ± 0.5
      Ca (cmol(+) kg−1) 0.3 ± 0.05 27.1 ± 2.5
      Mg (cmol(+) kg−1) 24.5 ± 1.9 10.8 ± 2.1
      Na (cmol(+) kg−1) 0.45 ± 0.03 2.6 ± 0.7
      Cu (cmol(+) kg−1) 110.1 ± 36.1 305.2 ± 38.6
      Zn (cmol(+) kg−1) 70.2 ± 6.9 412.8 ± 0.6
      Bulk density (kg cm−3) 1.52 ± 0.8
      EC, electrical conductivity; CEC, cation exchange capacity. Data are means ± standard error of the means for three replicates.

      Table 1. 

      The initial chemical properties of the soil at the Muzokomba area, experimental field and cattle manure used in the study.

    • YearTreatmentsSoil water storage (mm)
      P-EE-TT-SKSK-PMDry-P
      2020NT0%255.2 ± 5a240.6 ± 4a201.3 ± 5a176.8 ± 6a181.4 ± 7a
      NTLM269.5 ± 8b252.2 ± 3b236.1 ± 3b196.2 ± 4b205.0 ± 2b
      NTSM272.1 ± 6b258.0 ± 5b238.3 ± 6b198.1 ± 5b226.1 ± 2b
      NTHM284.3 ± 7c269.3 ± 7c249.2 ± 8c216.4 ± 7c231.0 ± 6c
      T0%254.2 ± 5a242.2 ± 4a200.2 ± 5a177.8 ± 6a183.4 ± 7a
      TLM288.6 ± 2c270.6 ± 2c246.4 ± 2c220.6 ± 8c233.2 ± 1c
      TSM299.1 ± 4d281.1 ± 4d259.1 ± 4d228.5 ± 1d249.1 ± 4d
      THM299.3 ± 7d293.3 ± 7d261.0 ± 5d230.6 ± 8d250.1 ± 3d
      2021NT0%254.1 ± 5a242.5 ± 4a202.3 ± 4a175.6 ± 6a183.4 ± 6a
      NTLM266.4 ± 6b255.4 ± 6b236.1 ± 3b196.2 ± 4b206.1 ± 5b
      NTSM270.2 ± 4b256.2 ± 4b238.3 ± 6b198.1 ± 5b228.2 ± 7b
      NTHM285.1 ± 3c265.1 ± 3c248.1 ± 5c216.4 ± 7c239.1 ± 6c
      T0%256.2 ± 5a243.5 ± 4a201.3 ± 5a175.7 ± 6a180.4 ± 6a
      TLM286.6 ± 2c288.6 ± 2b246.4 ± 2c221.0 ± 5c241.3 ± 1c
      TSM294.1 ± 4d290.1 ± 4b258.3 ± 7d226.6 ± 3d254.2 ± 4d
      THM302.5 ± 8d302.5 ± 8c260.3 ± 2d233.4 ± 9d258.0 ± 8d
      2022NT0%254.2 ± 4a241.5 ± 4a201.2 ± 4a175.6 ± 5a180.4 ± 7a
      NTLM266.5 ± 8b249.2 ± 2b238.4 ± 6b198.3 ± 1b204.6 ± 1b
      NTSM270.1 ± 6b254.0 ± 1b237.2 ± 8b196.0 ± 3b226.1 ± 6b
      NTHM266.3 ± 7c264.3 ± 5c250.1 ± 6c217.2 ± 8c253.0 ± 5c
      T0%253.2 ± 4a240.6 ± 4a200.3 ± 4a175.8 ± 5a180.4 ± 5a
      TLM285.6 ± 2c265.2 ± 7c247.3 ± 9c219.8 ± 6c255.2 ± 7c
      TSM298.1 ± 4d279.2 ± 3d260.4 ± 6d226.4 ± 2d266.3 ± 4d
      THM301.3 ± 7d283.4 ± 2d265.2 ± 3d231.2 ± 5d267.0 ± 5d
      Values in the same column and same year followed by different letters indicate significant differences (Duncan p < 0.05).

      Table 2. 

      Soil water storage at 0–120 cm soil profile as influenced by manure management.

    • Year Treatments Dry matter accumulation (t ha−1) Grain yield (t ha−1)
      P-E E-T T-SK SK-PM Dry-P
      2020 NT0% 1.1 ± 0.1a 9.0 ± 1.2a 29.5 ± 2.6a 58.6 ± 2.2a 20.1 ± 2.3a 0.2 ± 0.01a
      NTLM 1.2 ± 0.2a 16.4 ± 2.0b 52.8 ± 3.1b 76.4 ± 3.0b 30.6 ± 3.2b 0.4 ± 0.01b
      NTSM 1.2 ± 0.2a 18.7 ± 3.2c 65.6 ± 3.3c 87.4 ± 3.2c 40.8 ± 3.1c 0.6 ± 0.1c
      NTHM 1.3 ± 0.3a 23.5 ± 3.0d 76.3 ± 3.0d 96.2 ± 3.1d 52.4 ± 3.2d 0.8 ± 0.3d
      T0% 1.2 ± 0.1a 8.0 ± 1.1a 28.5 ± 2.5a 56.6 ± 2.1a 20.1 ± 2.2a 0.2 ± 0.01a
      TLM 1.4 ± 0.3a 22.7 ± 3.0d 80.3 ± 2.3d 100.8 ± 3.1d 53.2 ± 2.1d 0.9 ± 0.3d
      TSM 1.4 ± 0.3a 32.3 ± 3.1e 120.4 ± 3.2e 154.6 ± 3.3e 72.6 ± 3.0e 1.2 ± 0.5e
      THM 1.6 ± 0.3a 33.6 ± 3.1e 125.7 ± 3.8e 160.3 ± 3.5e 75.4 ± 3.2e 2.4 ± 0.7e
      2021 NT0% 1.1 ± 0.2a 8.0 ± 1.1a 28.5 ± 2.5a 59.6 ± 2.1a 21.1 ± 2.2a 0.2 ± 0.01a
      NTLM 1.2 ± 0.1a 16.6 ± 2.1b 50.9 ± 3.0b 77.1 ± 3.1b 31.8 ± 3.1b 0.5 ± 0.1b
      NTSM 1.2 ± 0.3a 17.9 ± 3.0c 66.6 ± 3.2c 86.8 ± 3.1c 42.2 ± 3.2c 0.6 ± 0.1c
      NTHM 1.3 ± 0.2a 24.4 ± 3.2d 75.4 ± 3.2d 97.2 ± 3.0d 45.7 ± 3.3d 0.7 ± 0.3d
      T0% 1.2 ± 0.1a 9.0 ± 1.3a 28.5 ± 2.6a 57.5 ± 2.2a 20.1 ± 2.3a 0.3 ± 0.01a
      TLM 1.3 ± 0.2a 23.3 ± 3.1d 78.1 ± 2.1d 103.2 ± 3.2d 35.5 ± 2.0d 1.2 ± 0.5e
      TSM 1.4 ± 0.2a 31.4 ± 3.2e 119.5 ± 3.0e 153.4 ± 3.2e 38.8 ± 3.2e 1.4 ± 0.5e
      THM 1.3 ± 0.2a 32.8 ± 3.0e 124.6 ± 3.5e 158.9 ± 3.3e 37.3 ± 3.1e 2.8 ± 0.7f
      2022 NT0% 1.1 ± 0.1a 9.1 ± 1.2a 28.5 ± 2.6a 57.5 ± 2.2a 20.0 ± 2.1a 0.2 ± 0.01a
      NTLM 1.3 ± 0.3a 15.1 ± 2.2b 52.3 ± 3.2b 77.8 ± 3.1b 32.3 ± 3.1b 0.4 ± 0.1b
      NTSM 1.2 ± 0.2a 19.4 ± 3.1c 66.8 ± 3.2c 88.5 ± 3.5c 41.6 ± 3.0c 0.7 ± 0.1c
      NTHM 1.3 ± 0.1a 24.5 ± 3.1d 78.2 ± 3.1d 97.3 ± 3.0d 45.7 ± 3.1d 0.7 ± 0.3c
      T0% 1.1 ± 0.1a 9.1 ± 1.3a 29.4 ± 2.5a 57.5 ± 2.1a 20.1 ± 2.1a 0.2 ± 0.01a
      TLM 1.9 ± 0.2b 25.2 ± 3.2d 82.4 ± 2.6d 101.5 ± 3.2d 47.6 ± 2.0d 1.3 ± 0.8e
      TSM 2.4 ± 0.2c 31.6 ± 3.2d 121.5 ± 3.1d 155.3 ± 3.2d 48.4 ± 3.1d 2.9 ± 0.8f
      THM 2.6 ± 0.3c 32.7 ± 3.0e 126.0 ± 3.3e 162.1 ± 3.0e 47.3 ± 3.0e 3.2 ± 0.9g
      Values in the same column and same year followed by different letters indicate significant differences (Duncan p < 0.05).

      Table 3. 

      Effect of manure management on dry matter accumulation at different growth stages and grain yield of maize.

    • Year Treatments Rainfall use efficiency (kg ha−1 mm−1) Grain yield (t ha−1)
      P-E E-T T-SK SK-PM Dry-P
      2020 NT0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 14.9 ± 4.2a 31.6 ± 3.2a 17.4 ± 2.1a 0.56 ± 2.1a
      NTLM 0.8 ± 0.1a 9.2 ± 2.1b 28.5 ± 3.3b 42.4 ± 3.0b 28.2 ± 3.1b 1.17 ± 2.1a
      NTSM 0.8 ± 0.2a 10.1 ± 3.2c 36.4 ± 3.2c 48.1 ± 3.1c 22.7 ± 3.2c 1.75 ± 0.6b
      NTHM 0.9 ± 0.1a 12.3 ± 3.1d 41.2 ± 4.2d 53.4 ± 3.3d 48.0 ± 3.3d 2.33 ± 1.1c
      T0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 15.9 ± 4.2a 32.6 ± 3.2a 18.4 ± 2.1a 0.58 ± 2.1a
      TLM 1.2 ± 0.2a 12.8 ± 3.1d 43.9 ± 4.3d 56.0 ± 3.2d 48.9 ± 3.2d 2.63 ± 1.2c
      TSM 1.2 ± 0.2a 18.2 ± 3.2e 65.1 ± 4.4e 85.9 ± 3.4e 66.5 ± 3.1e 3.51 ± 1.3d
      THM 1.4 ± 0.2a 19.0 ± 3.2e 67.9 ± 4.2e 89.0 ± 3.6f 69.0 ± 3.0e 7.01 ± 1.5f
      2021 NT0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 15.6 ± 4.1a 31.5 ± 3.2a 17.4 ± 2.1a 0.55 ± 2.1a
      NTLM 0.8 ± 0.1a 8.8 ± 2.2b 28.1 ± 3.1b 44.9 ± 3.2b 36.2 ± 3.0b 1.40 ± 0.8a
      NTSM 0.8 ± 0.2a 9.5 ± 3.1c 36.8 ± 3.0c 50.6 ± 3.2c 41.0 ± 3.0c 1.68 ± 0.9b
      NTHM 0.9 ± 0.2a 12.9 ± 3.2d 41.6 ± 4.1d 56.7 ± 3.1d 43.8 ± 3.0d 1.96 ± 0.9b
      T0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 16.2 ± 4.2a 36.2 ± 3.2a 19.3 ± 2.1a 0.59 ± 2.1a
      TLM 0.9 ± 0.1a 12.3 ± 3.2d 43.1 ± 4.1d 60.2 ± 3.1d 43.9 ± 3.0d 3.37 ± 1.2d
      TSM 1.0 ± 0.1a 16.6 ± 3.1e 66.0 ± 4.0e 89.4 ± 3.2f 42.9 ± 3.2e 3.93 ± 1.2d
      THM 0.9 ± 0.1a 17.4 ± 3.2e 68.8 ± 4.1e 92.6 ± 3.2f 42.4 ± 2.9e 7.86 ± 1.6f
      2022 NT0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 14.9 ± 4.2a 33.5 ± 3.2a 17.3 ± 2.1a 0.56 ± 2.1a
      NTLM 0.9 ± 0.1a 9.2 ± 2.1b 30.1 ± 2.9b 41.8 ± 3.2b 33.3 ± 3.0b 1.14 ± 0.7a
      NTSM 0.9 ± 0.2a 11.8 ± 2.1c 38.5 ± 3.1c 47.5 ± 3.0c 43.0 ± 3.1c 1.99 ± 0.9b
      NTHM 0.8 ± 0.1a 15.0 ± 3.1e 45.0 ± 4.0d 52.2 ± 3.2d 46.7 ± 3.2d 1.99 ± 0.9b
      T0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 15.9 ± 4.2a 32.6 ± 3.2a 18.4 ± 2.1a 0.58 ± 2.1a
      TLM 1.3 ± 0.1a 15.3 ± 3.2e 44.2 ± 3.8d 54.5 ± 3.1d 47.2 ± 3.0d 3.70 ± 1.2d
      TSM 1.6 ± 0.2a 19.3 ± 4.2e 70.0 ± 4.2e 83.6 ± 3.5e 49.2 ± 3.0de 8.26 ± 1.2f
      THM 1.7 ± 0.2b 20.0 ± 4.1ef 72.6 ± 4.1e 87.0 ± 3.0e 50.0 ± 2.8e 9.12 ± 1.6g
      Values in the same column and same year followed by different letters indicate significant differences (Duncan p < 0.05).

      Table 4. 

      Effect of manure management on rainfall use efficiency at different growth stages of maize.

    • Parameter Control Low manure Medium manure High manure
      2020 2021 2022 2020 2021 2022 2020 2021 2022
      Sand (%) 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1
      Silt (%) 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3
      Clay (%) 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3
      pH (H2O) 4.1 ± 2.1 4.3 ± 2.0 4.4 ± 2.1 4.3 ± 2.1 5.1 ± 0.3 5.3 ± 2.2 5.8 ± 2.1 6.2 ± 2.2 6.6 ± 2.0 6.6 ± 2.2
      EC(dSm−1) 6.2 ± 0.23 7.2 ± 0.6 7.6 ± 0.7 7.8 ± 0.6 9.1 ± 0.2 9.0 ± 0.3 9.6 ± 0.3 11.2 ± 0.6 15.1 ± 0.7 19.1 ± 0.7
      CEC (cmol(+) kg−1) 4.3 ± 1.4 8.3 ± 1.4 8.2 ± 1.4 8.1 ± 1.3 19.2 ± 1.2 18.8 ± 1.3 21.1 ± 1.2 21.3 ± 1.5 23.1 ± 1.4 28.2 ± 1.5
      Total C (%) 0.4 ± 0.01 0.8 ± 0.02 0.9 ± 0.01 0.8 ± 0.03 1.1 ± 0.3 1.2 ± 0.2 1.4 ± 0.3 1.2 ± 0.8 1.6 ± 0.8 2.2 ± 0.7
      Total N (%) 0.2 ± 0.02 0.5 ± 0.02 0.6 ± 0.02 0.5 ± 0.02 0.6 ± 0.01 0.6 ± 0.02 0.9 ± 0.02 0.9 ± 0.03 1.6 ± 0.3 2.9 ± 0.3
      C:N ratio 0.5 ± 0.01 0.6 ± 0.01 0.7 ± 0.01 0.6 ± 0.01 0.5 ± 0.7 0.5 ± 0.6 0.5 ± 0.7 0.8 ± 0.1 0.8 ± 0.1 0.8 ± 0.1
      Olsen extractable P
      (mg kg−1)
      55.0 ± 5.2 60.0 ± 5.3 59.0 ± 5.0 60.0 ± 5.3 82.4 ± 8.8 81.0 ± 9.2 87.0 ± 9.2 56.0 ± 5.2 60.0 ± 5.2 65.0 ± 5.2
      Extractable NO2/NO3
      (mg kg−1)
      25.1 ± 2.0 122.1 ± 2.0 123.1 ± 2.2 122.1 ± 2.2 250.5 ± 6.7 251.0 ± 7.0 258.3 ± 6.0 258.1 ± 7.0 265.1 ± 6.1 273.1 ± 7.1
      Extractable NH4
      (mg kg−1)
      96.2 ± 0.5 109.1 ± 0.9 108.0 ± 0.9 109.2 ± 0.8 376.2 ± 2.7 377.3 ± 2.8 381.2 ± 2.6 397.5 ± 0.6 418.2 ± 0.7 438.2 ± 0.8
      K (mg kg−1) 6.4 ± 0.4 4.5 ± 0.7 4.3 ± 0.6 3.9 ± 0.6 4.8 ± 0.4 4.6 ± 0.5 5.3 ± 0.7 3.6 ± 0.3 6.2 ± 0.4 10.1 ± 0.5
      Ca (cmol(+) kg−1) 0.3 ± 0.03 27 ± 4.1 26.9 ± 4.2 27.0 ± 4.1 30.3 ± 2.4 31.2 ± 2.4 39.2 ± 2.5 41.0 ± 4.4 42.2 ± 4.1 45.2 ± 3.5
      Mg (cmol(+) kg−1) 20.6 ± 1.2 11.3 ± 1.4 11.3 ± 1.3 10.9 ± 1.8 10.6 ± 2.0 10.1 ± 1.6 11.5 ± 1.6 9.5 ± 1.1 8.0 ± 1.0 13.2 ± 1.4
      Na (cmol(+) kg−1) 0.3 ± 0.01 2.4 ± 0.02 2.5 ± 0.01 2.5 ± 0.02 3.6 ± 0.7 3.7 ± 0.8 4.0 ± 0.9 3.9 ± 0.6 4.1 ± 0.3 5.1 ± 0.4
      Cu (cmol(+) kg−1) 111 ± 9.8 201 ± 25.8 204. ± 25.8 202 ± 25.8 315 ± 38.6 312 ± 20.1 328 ± 20.2 351 ± 22.6 356 ± 22.7 360 ± 25.6
      Zn (cmol(+) kg−1) 64.1 ± 5.5 330.6 ± 2.9 331.6 ± 4.1 332.3 ± 3.1 416.9 ± 0.8 415.6 ± 0.9 417.7 ± 0.8 432.6 ± 5.3 433.6 ± 5.4 438.2 ± 5.2
      Bulk density (kg cm−3) 1.53 ± 0.8 1.48 ± 0.6 1.46 ± 0.6 1.42 ± 0.6 1.45 ± 0.7 1.32 ± 0.6 1.28 ± 0.8 1.32 ± 0.6 1.10 ± 0.6 0.80 ± 0.4
      EC, electrical conductivity; CEC, cation exchange capacity. Data are means ± standard error of the means for three replicates.

      Table 5. 

      Soil nutrients and soil organic matter in tied-ridged plots as a function of the different manure treatments during 2020–2022.