Figures (7)  Tables (5)

    • Figure 1. 

      Germination of L. multiflorum under different herbicide treatments (7 d).

    • Figure 2. 

      Growth of L. multiflorum plants under different herbicide treatments (5 d).

    • Figure 3. 

      Effects of different herbicides on plant height of L. multiflorum. Types of herbicides - 1: Alachlor; 2: Butachlor; 3: Metolachlor; 4: Imazamox; 5: Atrazine; 6: Prometryn; 7: Flumetsulam; 8: Fomesafen; 9: Quinclorac; 10: Clomazone; 11: Isoxaflutole; 12: Pendimethalin; 13: 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; 14: Mixture (the above 13 mixed). Different lower-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different concentrations of the same herbicide, different upper-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different herbicides at the same concentration.

    • Figure 4. 

      Effects of different herbicides on leaf dry matter content of L. multiflorum. Types of herbicides - 1: Alachlor; 2: Butachlor; 3: Metolachlor; 4: Imazamox; 5: Atrazine; 6: Prometryn; 7: Flumetsulam; 8: Fomesafen; 9: Quinclorac; 10: Clomazone; 11: Isoxaflutole; 12: Pendimethalin; 13: 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; 14: Mixture (the above 13 mixed). Different lower-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different concentrations of the same herbicide, different upper-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different herbicides at the same concentration.

    • Figure 5. 

      Effects of different herbicides on photosynthetic pigment content of L. multiflorum. Types of herbicides - 1: Alachlor; 2: Butachlor; 3: Metolachlor; 4: Imazamox; 5: Atrazine; 6: Prometryn; 7: Flumetsulam; 8: Fomesafen; 9: Quinclorac; 10: Clomazone; 11: Isoxaflutole; 12: Pendimethalin; 13: 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; 14: Mixture (the above 13 mixed). Different lower-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different concentrations of the same herbicide, different upper-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different herbicides at the same concentration.

    • Figure 6. 

      Effects of different herbicides on chlorophyll fluorescence parameters of L. multiflorum. Types of herbicides − 1: Alachlor; 2: Butachlor; 3: Metolachlor; 4: Imazamox; 5: Atrazine; 6: Prometryn; 7: Flumetsulam; 8: Fomesafen; 9: Quinclorac; 10: Clomazone; 11: Isoxaflutole; 12: Pendimethalin; 13: 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; 14: Mixture (the above 13 mixed). Different lower-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different concentrations of the same herbicide, different upper-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different herbicides at the same concentration.

    • Figure 7. 

      Effects of different herbicides on leaf antioxidant enzymes of L. multiflorum. Types of herbicides - 1: Alachlor; 2: Butachlor; 3: Metolachlor; 4: Imazamox; 5: Atrazine; 6: Prometryn; 7: Flumetsulam; 8: Fomesafen; 9: Quinclorac; 10: Clomazone; 11: Isoxaflutole; 12: Pendimethalin; 13: 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; 14: Mixture (the above 13 mixed). Different lower-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different concentrations of the same herbicide, different upper-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different herbicides at the same concentration.

    • Herbicide name Standard purity Source
      Alachlor 98.7% Shanghai Pesticide Research Institute Co., Ltd
      Butachlor 98.4% Shanghai Pesticide Research Institute Co., Ltd
      Metolachlor 99.3% Shanghai Pesticide Research Institute Co., Ltd
      Imazamox 98.3% Shenyang Shenhua Institute Testing Technology Co., Ltd
      Atrazine 97.1% Sigma-Aldrich (Shanghai) Trading Co., Ltd.
      Prometryn 99.4% Shanghai Pesticide Research Institute Co., Ltd
      Fomesafen 99.0% Shanghai Pesticide Research Institute Co., Ltd
      Quinclorac 99.0% Shanghai Pesticide Research Institute Co., Ltd
      Flumetsulam 98.0% Sigma-Aldrich (Shanghai) Trading Co., Ltd.
      Clomazone 98.4% Shanghai Pesticide Research Institute Co., Ltd
      Isoxaflutole 98.6% Sigma-Aldrich (Shanghai) Trading Co., Ltd.
      Pendimethalin 98.2% Shanghai Pesticide Research Institute Co., Ltd
      2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid 99.1% Shenyang Shenhua Institute Testing Technology Co., Ltd

      Table 1. 

      Purity and source of tested herbicides.

    • Herbicide Concentration (μg·L−1)
      0 10 30 50 100 200 600 1,200 2,400
      Alachlor 54.53 ± 0.96a 60.03 ± 1.19aB 60.82 ± 2.09aB 58.27 ± 2.03aBC 57.66 ± 4.22aABC 57.36 ± 4.42aAB 30.07 ± 9.88bD 12.51 ± 4.52cE 9.08 ± 1.21cE
      Butachlor 54.53 ± 0.96b 58.91 ± 1.13aCD 54.26 ± 2.96bCD 53.51 ± 1.73bC 56.04 ± 5.10abC 51.17 ± 2.75bcB 58.53 ± 3.73abB 52.05 ± 4.17bAB 43.03 ± 4.31cBCD
      Metolachlor 54.53 ± 0.96ab 57.28 ± 1.85aD 58.85 ± 1.35aC 58.23 ± 1.27aBC 55.72 ± 3.87aABC 51.37 ± 1.04bB 51.30 ± 4.07bBC 27.25 ± 2.14cD 17.72 ± 4.93dE
      Imazamox 54.53 ± 0.96ab 56.87 ± 2.11abD 56.86 ± 2.26abCD 58.88 ± 2.87aAB 57.76 ± 3.48abABC 50.40 ± 0.94bcB 55.66 ± 5.23abBC 53.49 ± 10.60abABC 43.66 ± 7.11cBCD
      Atrazine 54.53 ± 0.96cd 60.90 ± 2.49abB 64.65 ± 0.80aA 58.11 ± 1.73bcBC 57.41 ± 0.69bcABC 56.68 ± 1.69bcAB 52.08 ± 5.00dBC 51.80 ± 4.85dAB 41.46 ± 4.00eCD
      Prometryn 54.53 ± 0.96cd 64.11 ± 2.33aAB 63.18 ± 2.11aAB 61.09 ± 2.27abAB 60.30 ± 4.22abAB 59.86 ± 3.06abA 56.65 ± 3.80bcB 50.40 ± 2.13dB 41.95 ± 5.57eBCD
      Fomesafen 54.53 ± 0.96c 63.12 ± 1.66aABC 58.45 ± 2.13bcCD 62.72 ± 2.27aAB 60.03 ± 2.37abABC 55.64 ± 1.43cAB 49.12 ± 3.83dC 45.94 ± 3.23dC 39.84 ± 4.47eCD
      Quinclorac 54.53 ± 0.96b 57.92 ± 0.72bD 58.27 ± 1.89bCD 57.85 ± 5.26bBC 55.70 ± 2.50bABC 56.73 ± 1.67bAB 62.57 ± 3.65aA 57.96 ± 2.78bA 57.24 ± 3.66bA
      Flumetsulam 54.53 ± 0.96b 59.05 ± 3.03bB 58.97 ± 1.51bC 63.90 ± 1.23aA 58.88 ± 4.21bABC 58.36 ± 3.48bAB 56.46 ± 3.89bB 56.20 ± 2.47bA 48.13 ± 4.20cB
      Clomazone 54.53 ± 0.96b 59.06 ± 8.76abAB 63.22 ± 2.07aAB 56.57 ± 4.36abBC 61.05 ± 3.93aA 53.75 ± 3.96bB 47.38 ± 1.39cC 43.38 ± 2.90cdC 36.97 ± 3.15dCD
      Isoxaflutole 54.53 ± 0.96b 56.89 ± 1.30abD 55.82 ± 0.86bD 60.35 ± 2.51aB 60.76 ± 6.40aABC 53.24 ± 1.60bcB 49.42 ± 1.78cC 43.44 ± 1.52dC 36.15 ± 4.15eD
      Pendimethalin 54.53 ± 0.96ab 58.40 ± 3.44aCD 56.21 ± 1.83abD 58.02 ± 1.32aBC 56.03 ± 2.60abABC 54.76 ± 2.10abAB 51.55 ± 5.90bcBC 48.60 ± 7.90cABC 42.53 ± 3.09dBC
      2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid 54.53 ± 0.96e 65.57 ± 1.97aA 58.74 ± 0.67cdCD 61.89 ± 3.12bAB 60.01 ± 2.60bcABC 56.61 ± 1.71deAB 49.06 ± 2.55fC 43.92 ± 1.89gC 44.07 ± 1.29gB
      Different lower-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different concentrations of the same herbicide, different upper-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different herbicides at the same concentration.

      Table 2. 

      Effects of different herbicides on germination index of L. multiflorum.

    • Herbicide Concentration (μg·L−1)
      0 10 30 50 100 200 600 1,200 2,400
      Alachlor 91.50 ± 3.42a 88.00 ± 3.65aABC 94.00 ± 2.83aA 90.50 ± 5.00aAB 90.50 ± 7.72aAB 92.00 ± 5.89aA 30.00 ± 12.00bE 9.50 ± 9.57cD 3.50 ± 4.44cE
      Butachlor 91.50 ± 3.42a 90.50 ± 1.92abBC 89.00 ± 7.39abcAB 87.00 ± 4.16abB 84.50 ± 5.26bcABC 80.00 ± 2.83cdBC 77.50 ± 12.48bcdAB 76.50 ± 4.12cdA 60.00 ± 11.89eB
      Metolachlor 91.50 ± 3.42ab 94.50 ± 1.00aA 93.00 ± 2.58aAB 91.50 ± 4.12abAB 90.00 ± 8.00abAB 81.00 ± 5.29BcABC 72.00 ± 15.92cABC 4.00 ± 2.31eD 15.00 ± 8.41dE
      Imazamox 91.50 ± 3.42a 87.50 ± 3.42abBC 80.00 ± 5.89bcC 78.00 ± 3.27bcD 79.00 ± 5.29bcC 71.00 ± 5.03cD 76.50 ± 7.72cB 74.00 ± 4.32cA 58.50 ± 12.79dB
      Atrazine 91.50 ± 3.42a 86.50 ± 4.44aC 86.50 ± 3.00aBC 87.00 ± 3.83aAB 87.00 ± 3.83aABC 87.50 ± 3.79aA 69.50 ± 7.72bBC 72.50 ± 5.75bA 48.00 ± 7.12cBC
      Prometryn 91.50 ± 3.42a 87.00 ± 5.77abC 86.00 ± 4.32abBC 78.50 ± 3.42abD 88.50 ± 3.42aAB 78.50 ± 7.72abBC 84.00 ± 10.95abA 72.50 ± 7.72bA 54.00 ± 20.46cB
      Fomesafen 91.50 ± 3.42a 87.50 ± 5.51abABC 90.50 ± 4.73aAB 90.00 ± 1.63aAB 81.00 ± 4.76abBC 76.50 ± 2.52bC 47.50 ± 17.69cCDE 38.00 ± 7.12cdC 33.50 ± 7.00dD
      Quinclorac 91.50 ± 3.42a 84.00 ± 5.42abBC 89.00 ± 2.58aAB 86.00 ± 8.17abABC 85.00 ± 5.77abABC 84.50 ± 4.44abAB 90.50 ± 3.42aA 85.00 ± 11.83abA 77.00 ± 6.22bA
      Flumetsulam 91.50 ± 3.42a 89.50 ± 8.06aABC 88.50 ± 2.52abB 90.00 ± 3.27aAB 86.00 ± 5.42abABC 84.50 ± 7.19abABC 80.00 ± 12.11abA 76.00 ± 8.49bA 59.00 ± 13.52cB
      Clomazone 91.50 ± 3.42a 80.50 ± 11.36bAB 87.50 ± 6.61abB 83.00 ± 5.77abD 88.50 ± 5.75abABC 82.00 ± 5.42abABC 45.00 ± 7.75cDE 28.00 ± 1.63dC 15.00 ± 4.76eE
      Isoxaflutole 91.50 ± 3.42a 90.50 ± 1.92aBC 87.50 ± 3.42aBC 91.50 ± 4.12aAB 86.00 ± 8.17aABC 85.50 ± 4.73aAB 54.00 ± 2.83bCD 26.00 ± 8.17cC 12.00 ± 2.83dE
      Pendimethalin 91.50 ± 3.42a 89.50 ± 1.92aABC 90.00 ± 5.89aAB 95.00 ± 2.58aA 90.00 ± 5.89aAB 87.00 ± 2.58aA 67.00 ± 20.69bABC 54.00 ± 32.54bB 38.00 ± 6.53cCD
      2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid 91.50 ± 3.42a 92.00 ± 3.65aAB 87.50 ± 5.26aBC 87.50 ± 4.44aABC 85.00 ± 3.83aABC 83.00 ± 5.29aABC 50.50 ± 9.15bDE 35.50 ± 5.75cC 30.50 ± 9.85cD
      Different lower-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different concentrations of the same herbicide, different upper-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different herbicides at the same concentration.

      Table 3. 

      Effects of different herbicides on germination ability of L. multiflorum.

    • Herbicide Concentration (μg·L−1)
      0 10 30 50 100 200 600 1,200 2,400
      Alachlor 4.98 ± 0.03b 4.83 ± 0.02bBC 4.85 ± 0.05bC 4.87 ± 0.06bAB 4.90 ± 0.07bAB 4.91 ± 0.10bBCD 5.33 ± 0.19aA 5.35 ± 0.23aABC 5.40 ± 0.31aAB
      Butachlor 4.98 ± 0.03ab 4.88 ± 0.02dAB 4.97 ± 0.03bcA 4.96 ± 0.06bcA 4.90 ± 0.11bcdAB 5.04 ± 0.06abA 4.84 ± 0.08dCD 4.94 ± 0.07bcdDE 5.12 ± 0.09aBCD
      Metolachlor 4.98 ± 0.03b 4.91 ± 0.03bAB 4.88 ± 0.05bB 4.89 ± 0.03bAB 4.93 ± 0.08bABC 5.05 ± 0.02bAB 4.95 ± 0.11bBCD 5.50 ± 0.02aA 5.46 ± 0.26aA
      Imazamox 4.98 ± 0.03a 4.87 ± 0.04aAB 4.88 ± 0.05aB 4.83 ± 0.07aABC 4.89 ± 0.10aABC 4.97 ± 0.08aAB 4.84 ± 0.11aCD 4.86 ± 0.23aCDE 4.95 ± 0.05aDE
      Atrazine 4.98 ± 0.03b 4.81 ± 0.07dBC 4.75 ± 0.02dD 4.89 ± 0.06cAB 4.90 ± 0.03bcABC 4.91 ± 0.03bcBC 4.95 ± 0.10bcBC 4.92 ± 0.04bcDE 5.16 ± 0.04aBC
      Prometryn 4.98 ± 0.03bc 4.77 ± 0.09eBCD 4.76 ± 0.04eD 4.80 ± 0.05deBC 4.81 ± 0.07deCD 4.83 ± 0.07deD 4.91 ± 0.08cdCD 5.04 ± 0.06bD 5.17 ± 0.15aBCD
      Fomesafen 4.98 ± 0.03c 4.76 ± 0.08eBCD 4.86 ± 0.05dBC 4.77 ± 0.03eCD 4.84 ± 0.03deCD 4.91 ± 0.04cdBCD 5.08 ± 0.10bAB 5.17 ± 0.07aBC 5.26 ± 0.09aBC
      Quinclorac 4.98 ± 0.03a 4.85 ± 0.07bcAB 4.86 ± 0.04bcBC 4.86 ± 0.04bcB 4.92 ± 0.03abAB 4.91 ± 0.07abBCD 4.80 ± 0.07cD 4.87 ± 0.07bcDE 4.91 ± 0.08abE
      Flumetsulam 4.98 ± 0.03ab 4.87 ± 0.06cAB 4.87 ± 0.04cB 4.76 ± 0.05dCD 4.84 ± 0.06cdCD 4.88 ± 0.10cCD 4.91 ± 0.06bcCD 4.84 ± 0.03cdE 5.04 ± 0.11aCD
      Clomazone 4.98 ± 0.03d 4.74 ± 0.06gCD 4.78 ± 0.07fgD 4.86 ± 0.03efB 4.83 ± 0.06fBC 4.94 ± 0.05deBC 5.16 ± 0.04cAB 5.27 ± 0.06bB 5.41 ± 0.06aAB
      Isoxaflutole 4.98 ± 0.03d 4.93 ± 0.03dA 4.93 ± 0.03dAB 4.82 ± 0.07eBC 4.82 ± 0.11eBC 5.01 ± 0.05dABC 5.11 ± 0.04cAB 5.28 ± 0.05bB 5.46 ± 0.07aA
      Pendimethalin 4.98 ± 0.03bc 4.89 ± 0.08cAB 4.94 ± 0.03bcA 4.92 ± 0.03cAB 4.95 ± 0.06bcAB 4.98 ± 0.05bcAB 5.02 ± 0.17bcABC 5.10 ± 0.20abBCDE 5.20 ± 0.05aBC
      2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid 4.98 ± 0.03c 4.74 ± 0.03fD 4.87 ± 0.04deB 4.82 ± 0.07eABC 4.82 ± 0.06eBC 4.92 ± 0.04cdBCD 5.10 ± 0.04bAB 5.24 ± 0.04aB 5.24 ± 0.03aBCD
      Different lower-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different concentrations of the same herbicide, different upper-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different herbicides at the same concentration.

      Table 4. 

      Effects of different herbicides on mean germination speed of L. multiflorum.

    • Herbicide Concentration (μg·L−1)
      0 10 30 50 100 200 600 1,200 2,400
      Alachlor 99.50 ± 1.00a 97.00 ± 1.16aAB 99.50 ± 1.00aAB 97.00 ± 3.46aABC 98.00 ± 2.31aA 98.50 ± 1.00aAB 70.00 ± 5.89bE 30.50 ± 5.51cE 23.00 ± 5.29dF
      Butachlor 99.50 ± 1.00aA 98.50 ± 1.92aA 97.50 ± 3.79aAB 95.50 ± 2.52abBC 95.50 ± 1.92abAB 97.00 ± 2.00aAB 96.00 ± 0.00aB 92.00 ± 3.27bBC 88.00 ± 3.65cCD
      Metolachlor 99.50 ± 1.00aA 98.50 ± 1.92aAB 98.50 ± 1.92aAB 98.00 ± 0.00aABC 96.50 ± 1.00abA 98.50 ± 1.92aAB 92.00 ± 5.89bD 74.00 ± 6.33cD 47.00 ± 6.00dE
      Imazamox 99.50 ± 1.00aA 95.00 ± 1.16aB 95.50 ± 1.92aB 95.50 ± 1.92abC 97.00 ± 1.16abA 92.00 ± 5.89abAB 91.00 ± 1.16bD 87.50 ± 3.42bC 80.00 ± 5.89cD
      Atrazine 99.50 ± 1.00aA 97.00 ± 2.58abAB 98.50 ± 1.92aAB 98.50 ± 1.92aAB 98.00 ± 1.63aA 97.00 ± 2.00abAB 93.50 ± 5.26abCD 92.00 ± 6.33bcBC 87.50 ± 5.51cCD
      Prometryn 99.50 ± 1.00aA 98.50 ± 3.00aAB 97.00 ± 2.58aAB 96.50 ± 1.92aBC 96.00 ± 3.27aA 97.00 ± 2.00aAB 97.50 ± 1.92aAB 97.00 ± 2.00aAB 89.00 ± 3.83bCD
      Fomesafen 99.50 ± 1.00aA 96.50 ± 4.73aAB 97.00 ± 2.00aAB 96.50 ± 1.92aBC 97.50 ± 2.52aA 95.50 ± 1.92aB 95.00 ± 1.16aBC 96.00 ± 1.63aAB 89.50 ± 5.26bBC
      Quinclorac 99.50 ± 1.00aA 95.00 ± 4.16aAB 96.50 ± 1.92aB 96.00 ± 6.73aABC 96.00 ± 4.32aA 97.00 ± 3.46aAB 98.50 ± 1.00aA 96.50 ± 1.00aAB 98.00 ± 1.63aA
      Flumetsulam 99.50 ± 1.00aA 98.50 ± 1.00aA 98.50 ± 1.00aAB 97.50 ± 3.79aABC 96.00 ± 4.32aA 97.00 ± 3.46aAB 96.50 ± 3.00aAB 91.50 ± 2.52bBC 91.50 ± 1.00bABC
      Clomazone 99.50 ± 1.00aA 90.00 ± 8.64bAB 98.50 ± 1.92aAB 93.50 ± 8.06abABC 98.50 ± 1.92aA 94.00 ± 4.32abAB 98.50 ± 1.92aA 97.00 ± 2.00abAB 92.00 ± 6.73abABC
      Isoxaflutole 99.50 ± 1.00aA 99.00 ± 1.16abA 97.50 ± 1.00abAB 97.00 ± 2.58abBC 97.00 ± 4.76abA 98.50 ± 1.00abAB 99.00 ± 1.16abA 98.00 ± 0.00abA 94.50 ± 5.75bABC
      Pendimethalin 99.50 ± 1.00aA 98.50 ± 1.00abA 99.50 ± 1.00aA 100.00 ± 0.00aA 99.50 ± 1.00aA 99.50 ± 1.00aA 95.50 ± 2.52bcBC 95.00 ± 2.58cAB 90.50 ± 4.73dABCD
      2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid 99.50 ± 1.00aA 99.00 ± 1.16aA 98.00 ± 2.83aAB 99.00 ± 1.16aABC 96.50 ± 1.92aA 97.50 ± 1.92aAB 97.00 ± 2.58aAB 96.50 ± 1.92aAB 96.50 ± 1.00aAB
      Different lower-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different concentrations of the same herbicide, different upper-case letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments of different herbicides at the same concentration.

      Table 5. 

      Effects of different herbicides on germination rate of L. multiflorum.