Figures (4)  Tables (4)

    • Figure 1. 

      Chemical structure of OTA.

    • Figure 2. 

      Factors affecting OTA concentration in wine.

    • Figure 3. 

      Degradation of OTA.

    • Figure 4. 

      The controlling strategies to minimize OTA during wine production.

    • Country Wine types Positive/sampling
      number      		 Positive detection value (μg/L) LOD
      (μg/L)      		 Ref.
      China − 223/223 < LOD-1.0 0.01 [16]
      − 8/90 0.006−0.126 0.000 [17]
      Thailand Red wine 10/100 0.3-1.7 0.06 [18]
      Italy Red wine 22/41 < LOD-0.270 0.014 [19]
      White wine 5/17 < LOD-0.158 0.012
      Greece − 10/23 3.4-15.6 1.0 [20]
      America − 35/41 0.3-8.6 0.1 [21]

      Table 1. 

      OTA contamination in wine in various countries from 2014 to 2024.

    • Source Strains Evaluation/application Ref.
      Aquatic environments of the Amazon region, Brazil Bacillus velezensis P1 For the first time, it has been observed that Bacillus species possess the ability to inhibit the production of Aspergillus carbonarius and ochratoxin. [56,57]
      Wine grape negroamaro Metschnikowia pulcherrima 20C1
      Candida incommunis 24K2
      Issatchenkia orientalis 2C2 and 16C2      		 The antagonism of Issatchenkia orientalis against Aspergillus carbonarius was first demonstrated, potentially attributed to competition for particular growth-limiting resources. [58]
      Argentine wine grape Lanchancea thermotolerans RCKT4 and RCKT5 The antagonistic activity was found in both greenhouse and field settings, resulting in a reduction of OTA levels by 27%−100%. [59]
      Feta cheese Lactobacillus plantarum T571 Regulate the OTAnrps and laeA genes related to OTA biosynthesis in Aspergillus carbonarius. [61]
      Fermented cauliflower Lactobacillus plantarum T345
      Black olive Lactobacillus plantarum T196
      Grape fruit Lactobacillus plantarum T1645
      Tomato Lactobacillus plantarum BN16 and BN17 Produce acetic acid, phenyllactic acid, pyrazines, and other compounds exhibiting antifungal properties. [62]
      Fish intestine Lactobacillus plantarum LIE3 and LIE4

      Table 2. 

      Antifungal microbial resources against Aspergillus carbonarius: strain sources, inhibition efficacy, and application potential.

    • Strains Degradation rate Degradation of active substances Characteristics of degradation Ref.
      Brevundimonas diminuta HAU429 95% (10 μg/mL, 72 h, 37 °C) Amide hydrolases BT6, BT7, and BT9 BT6 exhibited the highest level of heat resistance, retaining 38% of its activity following incubation at 70 °C for 10 min.
      BT7 showed the highest tolerance in the presence of 6% ethanol, maintaining 76% activity.      		 [79]
      Acinetobacter pittii AP19 100% (1 mg/mL, 36 h, 37 °C) Carboxypeptidase DacC AP19 is not generally recognized as safe and cannot be used directly in food. [80]
      Brevundimonas sp. ML17 100% (1 μg/mL, 24 h, 37 °C) Enzymes and peptides OTA can be degraded to OTα and OTB to OTβ simultaneously.
      Both intracellular and extracellular components degrade OTA.      		 [81]
      Cytobacillus oceanisediminis CO29 > 50% (1 mg/L, 48 h, 37 °C) Intracellular metalloenzymes Coumarin has been used as an alternative substrate for screening OTA degrading bacteria, and Cytobacillus oceanisediminis strain with OTA detoxification ability has been reported for the first time. [82]
      Lysobacter sp. CW239 100% (30 μg/L, 24 h, 30 °C) Carboxypeptidase CP4 The purified recombinant protein rCP4 showed low OTA degradation activity. [83]
      Bacillus subtilis CW14 97% (2 mg/mL, 24 h, 37 °C) Carboxypeptidase and active peptide segments Peptides can bind OTA.
      The removal of OTA from the culture supernatant of strain CW14 may have synergistic effects, including carboxypeptidase degradation and physical adsorption of some small peptides.      		 [84]
      Stenotrophomonas acidaminiphila CW117 100% (50 μg/L, 6 h, 37 °C) Encoding amide hydrolase ADH3 ADH3 is more inclined than other detoxifying enzymes to form a larger hydrophobic area in the cavity of the catalytic site, which makes OTA easier to enter the catalytic site for hydrolysis.
      Wide temperature range (0 to 70 °C).      		 [85]
      Yarrowia lipolytica 90% (1 μg/mL, 24 h, 28 °C) − HepG2 cells were used to test the toxicity of OTA biodegradation products was lower than OTA, and the degradation efficiency of strain was related to strain concentration, temperature, pH value, and OTA concentration. [86]
      Lactobacillus rhamnosus JCM 1136T 46% (500 μg/L, 48 h, 30 °C) − Microbial isolates reduced OTA content in TSB culture medium and wine experimental system. [87]
      Lactobacillus plantarum CECT 749 95% (0.6 μg/mL, 24 h, 37 °C) − OTA are degraded by hydrolysis of OTA amide groups and subsequent release of OTα and L-β-Phe portions, and in the presence of LAB, OTA is reduced during gastrointestinal digestion. [89]
      Pediococcus parvulus UTAD 473 100% (1 μg/mL, 7 d, 30 °C) − The strain was isolated from Douro wine and could degrade OTA in grape juice.
      Adsorption did not participate in the elimination of OTA by the strain.      		 [88]
      Pediococcus acidilactici NJB421 49% (2 μg/mL, 48 h, 37 °C) − NJB421 has the characteristics of high temperature and acid resistance, and the mouse test shows that NJB421 is safe and harmless to mice. [90]
      − 45.26%
      (100 μg/L, 0.5 h, 41 °C)      		 Bovine trypsin serine protease It was the first attempt to demonstrate that bromelain and trypsin can hydrolyze OTA with low efficiency at acidic pH conditions and that metalloendopeptidase is an effective OTA bioantidote. [78]
      − 7.64%
      (100 μg/L, 0.5 h, 41 °C)      		 Neutral metal endopeptidase
      − 100% (20 μg/L, 24 h, 37 °C) CPA − [40]
      − 100% (20 μg/L, 24 h, 37 °C) Lipase −
      − 75.72% (20 μg/L, 24 h, 37 °C) Pancreatase −

      Table 3. 

      Strains and enzymes capable of degrading OTA.

    • Treatments Effects of different treatments on grape juice or wine Ref.
      Color Organic acids/
      reducing sugars      		 Antioxidant active substance Volatile compound Others
      Bentonite, gelatin and diatomaceous earth − − The contents of phenolic acid and flavonoid were decreased. − − [49]
      Activated carbon Affect − The contents of anthocyanins, phenolic acids and catechins decreased. − − [50]
      PVPP, PA-EGDMA − − Total phenol content decreased. − − [55]
      Nano MgO MCM No significant effect Reducing sugars content decreased. The total phenol content of dry red wine decreased, while that of ice wine increased. − Reduce macromolecules and precipitation in wine. [54]
      Grape pomace No significant effect − No significant effect − − [66]
      Lactobacillus rhamnosus biofilm − − The content of total phenol in grape juice was significantly lower. − − [75]
      L-Es@CNCs The color of the grape juice is reduced, and the red and yellow components are reduced. °Brix content and titrable acidity had no significant effect. The total phenol content of grape juice was reduced. − − [77]
      Alginate- PVA- LP complex − − There was no significant effect on total phenol concentration. − − [76]
      CPA Brighter − − Increased esters; alcohol decreases, menthol disappears, and isopropyl alcohol is formed. Decreased acid content; aldehydes and ketones increased. − [40]
      Pancreatase Darker Lactic acid, malic acid, and tartaric acid decreased. − The esters increase to produce ethyl palmitate; alcohols decreased; acid increase; aldehydes and ketones decreased. −
      Lipase Darker Tartaric acid drops. − The esters increase to produce ethyl palmitate; alcohol decreases, menthol disappears, and isopropyl alcohol is formed. decreased acid content; aldehydes and ketones decreased. −
      Bacillus velezensis P1 − − − The contents of lipoic acid and octanol are less, while volatile terpenes are increased. − [56]

      Table 4. 

      Effects of different treatments on grape juice or wine.