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Figure 1. 

Illustration of virtual origin of fire source.

Figure 2. 

Comparison of predicted smoke production rates by different models with varied smoke clear height. (a) y = 3 m, (b) y = 5 m, (c) y = 10 m, (d) y = 15 m.

Figure 3. 

Comparison of predicted smoke production rates from CIBSE and the Heskestad model.

Figure 4. 

Comparison of predicted smoke production rates from the CIBSE model and the NFPA model.

Figure 5. 

Comparison of predicted smoke production rates from CIBSE model and Hinkley's model.

Figure 6. 

Measured and predicted smoke temperature at 11.6 and 20 m above fire source. Experimental conditions: one A0-tray plus one A1-tray containing 22.5 l of methylated spirit; Fire HRR: 1.05 MW; atrium height: 35 m.

Figure 7. 

Measured and predicted smoke temperature at 7.6 and 10 m above fire source. Experimental conditions: one A0-tray containing 15 l of methylated spirit; Fire size (HRR): 0.7 MW; height of passenger transport interchange centre: 12 m.

Figure 8. 

Arrival's hall of Hong Kong International Airport terminal 1.

Figure 9. 

Smoke transport time from fire source to ceiling. (a) Fixed 20 m ceiling height, smoke transport time varies with HRR of fire. (b) Fixed 1,000 kW fire, smoke transport time varies with height.

Figure 10. 

Evolvement of smoke transport height.

Figure 11. 

Time of smoke transportation to the ceiling against HRR of fire, the environmental temperature varies linearly from 24 to 55 °C along the height.

Figure 12. 

(a) Illustration of smoke spreads radially under an unconfined and smooth ceiling.(b) Smoke spread pattern as fire starts at a distance from the end wall.

Figure 13. 

Smoke clear height vs distance to the plume axis under different slab height for unconfined and smooth slab without smoke extraction.

Figure 14. 

Smoke temperature vs distance to the plume axis under different ceiling height for unconfined ceiling and 2 MW steady fire.

Figure 15. 

Illustration of smoke spread under a confined ceiling.

Figure 16. 

Predicted smoke temperature vs smoke travel distance at different ceiling height in a 20vm width channel by Delichatsios model.

Figure 17. 

Predicted smoke temperature vs smoke travel distance at different ceiling heights in a 20 m width ceiling smoke channel by Alpert model derived for confined ceiling.

Figure 18. 

Comparison of the Delichatsios model, Alpert model derived with the Glasgow tunnel test results.

Figure 19. 

Illustration of the smoke reservoirs in the depot.

Figure 20. 

Smoke temperature vs distance with smoke spreading in the reservoir.

Figure 21. 

Smoke clear height vs distance travelled with smoke spreading in the reservoir, the smoke extraction system is operating.