Figures (1)  Tables (3)

    • Figure 1. 

      Major bioactive compositions in coconut water and their potential benefits for plant tissue culture.

    • NutrientBenefitsReference
      Electrolytes (potassium, sodium, magnesium, and calcium)Help regulate fluid balance and muscle function[21]
      Vitamins (C, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9, and B12)Essential for overall health and well-being[22]
      Minerals (iron, manganese, copper, and zinc)Play important roles in metabolism, immunity, and other bodily functions[10]
      Amino acidsBuilding blocks of proteins[7]
      EnzymesHelp with digestion and other metabolic processes[23]
      AntioxidantsProtect cells from damage[4]

      Table 1. 

      Nutritional components in coconut water.

    • Objects Induction method/dose Result Reference
      Male Sprague-Dawley rats Mature coconut water; 1,000 mg/kg 53.14% reduction of blood glucose level [35]
      Male albino rats (Sprague-Dawley) Tender coconut water (TCW),
      4 mL/100 g/day      		 Significantly reduced the oxidative stress induced by isoproterenol and exerted significant antithrombotic effects. [36]
      Male Wistar rats TCW from West African Tall coconut,
      20 ml/kg body weight      		 Coconut water reduced the toxicity of chloramphenicol by increasing enzyme level [37]
      Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-intoxicated female rats TCW, 2−6 mL/kg TCW significantly lowered the generation of free radical. [38]
      Male Wistar rats Coconut endocarp (CNE), 3.33 mg CNE graetly reduced the systolic blood pressure in rats (from 185 to 145 mmHg). [39]
      White Wistar male rats TCW, 8 mL/200 gr BW rats/day TCW can elevate hematocrit, hemoglobin and erythrocyte levels in rats. [40]
      Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats Coconut water, Intraperitoneal
      injection of (60 mg/kg).      		 Coconut water can be protective against diabetic retinopathy by decreasing oxidative stress and anti-inflammatory activities in the retina. [41]
      Mouse breast cancer cell line (4T1) Coconut water and vinegars,
      2.00 mL/kg      		 Coconut water vinegar slower the spread of breast cancer by killing cancer cells, and boosting the immune system. [42]
      Male Wistar rats Coconut water, Normal rat diet +
      0.75% EG + 10% Coconut water      		 Coconut water prevented kidney stones by stopping crystals from forming and reducing urine crystals. It also protected the kidney damage and prevented oxidative stress caused by free radicals. [43]
      Healthy physically active male Coconut water enriched with sodium (SCW), 3,000 ml/trial SCW did not cause nausea and stomach upset. Coconut is a great alternative to commercial sports drinks for rehydrating. [21]
      COVID-19 patient Lactic acid bacteria from coconut water Extracted probiotics from coconut water, which could potentially contribute to the recovery of Covid-19 patients. [34]

      Table 2. 

      Clinical applications of coconut water.

    • Plant species Explant Callogenesis
      and embryogenesis      		 Shoot regeneration
      and multiplication      		 Notable effect of CW Reference
      Daruta stramonium Zygotic embryo _ Tukey's medium + 1% dextrose + 33.3% CW - Critical for the development and germination of zygotic embryo [44]
      Ipomea batatas Leaf MS + 0.5–2.0 mg·L−1 2,4-D + 6% sucrose
      MS + 2.0 mg·L−1 2,4-D + 2.0 mg·L−1 kinetin + 20% CW + 6% sucrose      		 Hormone-free MS - Supported callus formation and multiplication [10,45,46]
      Agave cantala,
      A. fourcroydes,
      A. sisalana      		 Stolon MS + 0.1 mg·L−1 2,4-D + 0.1 mg·L−1 BA + 10% CW + 2% sucrose MS + 0.075 mg·L−1 NAA + 0.1 mg·L−1 IBA + 0.5 mg·L−1 kinetin + 10% CW + 2% sucrose
      Hormone-free MS      		 - Supported callus growth and shoot regeneration [10,45,46]
      Camellia sinensis Nodal segment Hormone-free VW + 15% CW + 2% sucrose
      MS + 1 mg·L−1 2,4-D + 1 mg·L−1 kinetin + 6% sucrose      		 - Stimulated callogenesis in hormone-free medium [10,45,46]
      Musa paradisiaca Shoot tip N/A MS + 0.5 mg·L−1 NAA + 5% CW - Showed positive effect on shoot multiplication in combination with NAA
      - Sufficiently stimulate rooting with similar result compared to 1.5 mg·L−1 NAA
      - Accelerated the emergence of the first root but reduced shoot length and number of roots at any concentrations higher than 5%      		 [10,45,46]
      Capsicum annuum Seed N/A Hormone-free MS + 3% sucrose
      MS + 9.0 μM TDZ + 5.77 μM GA3 + 14.7 μM PAA + 10% CW
      MS + 0.45 μM TDZ + 5.77 μM GA3 + 14.7 μM PAA + 10% CW
      MS + 9.8 μM IBA + 10% CW + 30 μM AgNO3      		 - Enhanced shoot formation and elongation
      - Exhibit more efficient rooting effect than IBA
      - Showed synergistic effect with AgNO3 during rooting process      		 [10,45,46]
      Spinacia oleracea Young leaf MS + 9.3 μM kinetin + 2.3 μM 2,4-D + 15% CW + 3% sucrose MS + 9.3 μM kinetin + 0.05 μM 2,4-D + 2.9 μM GA3 + 15% CW + 3% sucrose - Promoted callogenesis and shoot regeneration [10,45,46]
      Lycopersicon esculentum Hypocotyl, leaf disk MS + 5 mg·L−1 IAA + 1.5 mg·L−1 kinetin + 12% CW + 3% sucrose MS + 5 mg·L−1 IAA + 1.5 mgl kinetin + 12% CW + 3% sucrose
      MS + 0.1 mg·L−1 IAA + 3% sucrose      		 - Improved callogenesis and shoot regeneration
      - Significantly enhanced plantlet survival rate during acclimatization      		 [10,45,46]
      Phoenix dactylifera Shoot tip MS + 100 mg·L−1 2,4-D + 3 mg·L−1 2iP + 3% sucrose + 1.5 g·L−1 AC
      MS + 10 mg·L−1 NAA + 30 mg·L−1 2iP + 10–15% CW + 1.5 g·L−1 AC      		 Hormone-free MS + 10%–15% CW
      ½ MS + 0.1 mg/l NAA      		 - Both co-autoclaved and filtered CW improved callogenesis and somatic embryogenesis
      - Co-autoclaved CW showed slightly higher improvement in callogenesis and somatic embryogenesis      		 [10,45,46]
      Cocos nucifera Zygotic embryo Y3 + 700 μM 2,4-D + 15% CW + 5% sucrose + 0.25% AC Y3 + 300–350 μM 2,4-D + 15% CW + 5% sucrose + 0.25% AC - Enhanced callus induction and somatic embryogenesis [10,45,46]
      Triticum aestivum Seed MS + 3 mg·L−1 2,4-D + 20% CW + 30 g·L−1 sucrose MS + 1.5 mg·L−1 BA + 10% CW + 30 g·L−1 sucrose - Enhanced callus induction and shoot regeneration [10,45,46]
      Ariocarpus kotschoubeyanus Epicotyl segment MS + 2 mg·L−1 zeatin + 3% sucrose MS + 1% CW + 3% sucrose
      MS + 3% sucrose + 1% PEG + 1% AC
      ½ MS + 1 mg·L−1 IAA + 3% sucrose + 1% PEG      		 - Crucial for shoot regeneration from callus explant even at very small amount [10,45,46]
      Corylus avellana Nodal segment N/A 80% DKW + 2 mg·L−1 BA + 2% glucose + 0.5% AC
      80% DKW + 2 mg·L−1 BA + 0.01 mg·L−1 IAA + 0.5 mg·L−1 GA3 + 20% CW + 3% glucose      		 - Improved shoot proliferation and growth [10,45,46]
      Solanum tuberosum Nodal segment N/A MS + 22.5% CW + 30 g·L−1 sucrose - Improved in vitro shoot multiplication and tuber formation [10,45,46]
      Fragaria × ananassa Shoot tip N/A 1/3 MS + 0.5 mg·L−1 BA + 0.1 mg·L−1 IBA + 10% CW + 30 g·L−1 sucrose - Shoot multiplication was 4-fold higher than the control [10,45,46]
      Actinidia deliciosa Seed N/A Hormone-free MS
      MS + 2 mg·L−1 BA + 20% CW
      ½ MS + 0.02 g·L−1 IBA      		 - Stimulated the highest rate of shoot multiplication when combined with BA [10,45,46]
      Cyamopsis tetragonolobust Seed N/A Hormone-free MS
      MS + 2 mg·L−1 2,4-D + 20% CW
      ½ MS + 0.02 mg·L−1 IBA      		 - Enhanced shoot multiplication [10,45,46]
      Musa acuminata Shoot tip N/A MS + 5 mg·L−1 BA + 3% sucrose
      ½ MS + 1 mg·L−1 NAA + 10% CW + 1.5% sucrose      		 - Improved shoot regeneration and growth [10,45,46]
      Ananas comosus In vitro bud N/A MS + 1 mg/l IAA + 4 mg·L−1 BA + 10% CW
      MS + 1 mg·L−1 IAA + 20% CW      		 - Efficiently stimulated bud proliferation at the concentration of 10% when combined with IAA and BA.
      - Induced the greatest plantlet growth at the concentration of 20% when added to cytokinin-free medium      		 [10,45,46]
      Dianthus caryophyllus Shoot tip, nodal segment N/A MS + 1 mg·L−1BA + 10% CW + 3% sucrose
      ½MS + 1 mg·L−1 NAA + 3% sucrose      		 - Enhanced shoot proliferation rate and average length of shoots [10,45,46]
      Olea europaea Zygotic embryo N/A MS + 10% CW + 3% sucrose - Exhibited significant interactive effect between olive genotypes and CW concentration during shoot multiplication.
      - Improved overall proliferation and growth of in vitro shoot at the concentration of 10%      		 [10,45,46]
      Elaeis guineensis Zygotic embryo N/A Hormone-free MS
      MS + 0.5 mg·L−1 BA + 0.5 mg·L−1 kinetin + 15% CW + 3% sucrose      		 - Significantly reduced explant browning rate
      - Stimulated shoot proliferation when combined with other hormones      		 [10,45,46]
      Cocos nucifera Zygotic embryo N/A Y3 + 5 μM BA + 3% sucrose + 0.25% AC
      Y3 + 5 μM BA + 10% CW + 2% sucrose + 0.25% AC      		 - Reduced germination rate of zygotic embryo compared to control
      - Promoted post-germination growth off seedlings      		 [10,45,46]
      Ficus carica Shoot tip N/A MS + 1 mg·L−1 BA + 20% CW - Replaced sucrose as an alternative carbon and energy source [10,45,46]
      Solanum tuberosum Nodal segment N/A MS + 30% 6-month-old CW - Exhibited different effects among various maturities and concentration due to differences in hormone contents.
      - Significantly improved in vitro shoot growth at any concentrations for 6-month-old CW.
      - Only posed positive effect at the concentration of 30% for younger maturities of CW      		 [10,45,46]
      MS: Murashige and Skoog basal medium[10,45,46]; Y3: Eeuwens basal medium[70]; DKW: Driver and Kuniyuki basal medium[8]; VW: Vacin and Went basal medium[71]; 2,4-D: 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; NAA: α-naphthaleneacetic acid; IAA: indole-3-acetic acid; IBA: indole-3-butyric acid; BA: 6-benzylaminopurine; TDZ: Thidiazuron; GA3: gibberellic acid; PEG: polyethylene glycol; CW: coconut water; AC: activated charcoal.

      Table 3. 

      Application of coconut water in tissue culture of different plant species.