Figures (5)  Tables (2)

    • Figure 1. 

      General structure of cyanogenic glycosides (structure was made with ChemSketch software, version 2024.2.3).

    • Figure 2. 

      Structures of the most important glycoalkaloids. (a) α-solanine, (b) α-chaconine, (c) α-tomatine, (d) dehydrotomatine, (e) solamargine, and (f) solasonine (structures were made with ChemSketch software, version 2024.2.3).

    • Figure 3. 

      General structure of Pyrrolizidine alkaloids. (a) Necic acid. (b) Necine base (structure was made with ChemSketch software, version 2024.2.3).

    • Figure 4. 

      Three-dimensional structures of the (a) PHA and (b) PHA-L of Phaseolus vulgaris.

    • Figure 5. 

      Chemical structure of furanocoumarin (structure was made with ChemSketch software, version 2024.2.3).

    • Food group Toxic molecule Food Mechanism of toxicity Ref.
      Fruits Amygdalin Apple seeds, bitter almonds, apricots Release of HCN by enzymatic hydrolysis, inhibiting cytochrome C oxidase and causing cellular hypoxia. [43−45]
      Furanocoumarins Grapefruit, lime, bergamot UV photoactivation, generating ROS that damage cell membranes and DNA. [46−48]
      Vegetables Nitrates Spinach, lettuce, beets, celery Conversion to carcinogenic nitrosamines in the gastrointestinal tract. [41,49]
      α-Solanine Green or sprouted potatoes, eggplants Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and disruption of cell membranes. [50,51]
      Cereals Phytic acid Wheat bran, brown rice, legumes Chelation of minerals (Fe, Zn, Ca), reducing their bioavailability. [52,53]
      Aflatoxin B1 Corn, peanuts, nuts, rice stored in humid conditions Chelation of minerals (Fe, Zn, Ca), reducing their bioavailability. [42,54]
      Dairy Aflatoxin M1 Milk, cheese, yogurt (from cows that consumed feed contaminated with aflatoxin B1) Hepatotoxic metabolite that forms DNA adducts and causes oxidative stress. [54,55]
      Egg Avidin Raw egg white Binding to biotin (vitamin B7), preventing its absorption and causing deficiency. [56]
      Fish and mollusks Tetrodotoxin Globin fish, gecko, some bivalve molluscs Blockage of voltage-gated sodium channels, causing paralysis. [57,58]
      Mercury (methylmercury) Tuna, swordfish, shark, pike Neurotoxicity by binding to thiol groups in neuronal proteins.
      Mushrooms α-Amanitin Amanita phalloides, Amanita virosa (poisonous mushrooms) Inhibition of RNA polymerase II, stopping protein synthesis. [59−61]
      Poultry meat Cytolethal distending toxin (CDT) Chicken contaminated with Campylobacter jejuni Actin depolymerization, causing cell distension and death. [62]
      Pork and beef Heterocyclic amines Grilled meat, well-cooked fried meats Formation of mutagenic DNA adducts during high-temperature cooking. [25,63,64]
      Natural infusions Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) Herbal teas (senecio, borage, comfrey) Metabolization to pyrroles that damage the liver (hepatic veno-occlusion). [65,66]

      Table 1. 

      Toxic molecules in some popular foods and their mechanism of toxicity.

    • Subclass Common name Systematic name Chemical structure
      Aminoimidazoazarenes PhIP 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine
      IQ 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline
      MeIQ 2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline
      MeIQx 2-amino-3,8-dimethylmidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline
      β-carbolines β-carboline-1 carboxylic acid 9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole-1-carboxylic acid
      Harmane 1-methyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole
      Norharmane or β-carboline 9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole
      (Structures were made with ChemSketch software, version 2024.2.3).

      Table 2. 

      Structures and systematic names of some heterocyclic aromatic amines.