Figures (3)  Tables (2)

    • Figure 1. 

      L. sulphureus on an oak tree. Photograph by Gargoyle888, 2007. Licensed under GFDL 1.2 and CC BY 3.0. Available from Wikimedia Commons[6].

    • Figure 2. 

      Anticancer mechanisms of the bioactive compounds of L. sulphureus, such as polysaccharides, triterpenoids, phenolics, and lectins.

    • Figure 3. 

      Chemical structures of representative bioactive compounds isolated from L. sulphureus. (a) 3-Oxosulphurenic acid (triterpenoid)[14]; (b) eburicoic acid (triterpenoid)[14]; (c) ergosterol (steroid)[63]; (d) laetirobin (benzofuran)[82]; (e) rosmarinic acid (phenolic)[68]; (f) sulphureuine B (sesquiterpenoid)[56]; (g) laetiporic acid A (polyene)[3]; (h) sulphureuine E (sesquiterpenoid)[56].

    • Country/region Uses/applications Used as Ref.
      General food Traditional medicine
      North America Foraged and consumed as food; part of broader indigenous mycological traditions (e.g., Iroquois people). Nonetheless, the medicinal use of wild mushrooms remained virtually neglected by mainstream culture. √ √ [10,11]
      Great Britain and Germany Young fruiting bodies are edible; described as tasting like crab or lobster √ [12]
      Central and Eastern Europe Treatment of bronchitis, gastrointestinal disorders, pyrexia, gastric carcinoma, rheumatism; burned fruiting bodies are used to repel mosquitoes and midges √ [13,14]
      Georgia Used to treat "dasunt̕k̕uli" (a dermal eruption attributed to contaminated food); integrated with spiritual and ritual healing practices √ [15]
      China Used in traditional Chinese medicine for neoplasms, gastrointestinal ailments, cough, and rheumatism; pain relief; treatment of heart, spleen, and stomach disorders; and promoting longevity √ [16,17]
      Japan Considered a delicacy; traditionally used against cancers (especially breast and prostate); incorporated into conventional healthcare practices √ √ [17]
      Western Himalayas (Jammu and Kashmir, India) Consumed with milk as a healthy food; used for treating seminal weakness, wound healing, treating the common cold, expulsion of retained placenta, and relief of post-delivery abdominal pain √ √ [18,19]
      Central Nepal (Dolakha District) Treatment of diarrhea, hematochezia, stomach pain, common cold, high blood sugar, high blood pressure, and weakness and fatigue; immune support √ [20]
      South America (Colombia, Brazil, Uruguay) Limited documented traditional medicinal use: Specimens have been used in scientific studies investigating therapeutic effects √ [2,21,22]
      Colombia Traditional consumption of edible mushrooms among ethnic and peasant communities (general fungal use) √ [23]
      Costa Rica Limited fungal consumption among native populations; decline in traditional knowledge among younger generations √ [24]
      Eastern Africa (Ethiopia) Abdominal discomfort; childbirth pain relief; expulsion of retained placenta; treatment of common cold √ [25−27]
      Central Africa (Cameroon) Utilised for both nourishment and general therapeutic purposes by indigenous populations (e.g., the Awing people) √ √ [28−30]

      Table 1. 

      Global ethnopharmacological and traditional uses of L. sulphureus.

    • Bioactive compound Key pharmacological activities Evidence type Material tested Ref.
      Polysaccharides (glucans, chitin, sulfated polysaccharides) Antiproliferative
      Antimetastatic
      Cell cycle arrest (G0/G1)
      Apoptosis induction
      Migration inhibition
      Immunomodulatory
      Antioxidant      		 In vitro Purified polysaccharide fractions
      Fruiting body extract      		 [17,43,45,47]
      Lanostane triterpenoids (eburicoic acid, sulphurenic acid, acetyl eburicoic acid, laetiporins C/D) Anti-inflammatory
      Neurotrophic (nerve growth factor/brain-derived neruotrophic factor upregulation)
      Antiproliferative/apoptotic
      Hepatoprotective
      Weak antifungal      		 In vitro
      In vivo (rat hepatic fibrosis model)      		 Pure compounds (isolated lanostanes).
      Semipurified extract fraction      		 [5,48−53,56]
      Drimane-type sesquiterpenoids (sulphureuines B–H) Antiproliferative/cytotoxic (selective for glioma U-87MG cells)
      Apoptosis induction via endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, mitochondrial, and death receptor pathways      		 In vitro Pure compounds (isolated from mycelial culture) [57]
      Phenolics (polyphenols, flavonoids, phenolic acids) Antioxidant
      Antimicrobial
      Anti-inflammatory
      Anticancer      		 In vitro Crude extracts (ethanolic, methanolic, ethyl acetate fractions) [31,35,38,59,61−69]
      Steroids and steroid-containing extracts (ergosterol, ergosterol peroxide, cerevisterol, and lanostane derivatives) Antitumour/cytotoxic
      Antifungal
      Anti-melanogenic (tyrosinase inhibition)      		 In vitro
      In vivo (zebrafish)      		 Fruiting body extracts (chloroform, ethanol)
      Mycelial culture extracts
      Isolated steroids (gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy [GC-MS], high-performance liquid chromatography [HPLC])      		 [63,70,72−74]
      Polyenes (laetiporic acids A–D) Natural pigment/colorant
      Antifungal activity      		 In vitro (antifungal assays) Fruiting body extracts
      Liquid culture mycelium
      Heterologous expression products (laetiporic acid mixture)      		 [75−77]
      Lectins (LSL/LSL4, ~76 kDa glycoprotein) Immunomodulatory (macrophage activation, NO/cytokine release via TLR4)
      Anti-angiogenic
      Antitumor (inhibits colorectal carcinoma and melanoma in zebrafish)      		 In vitro
      In vivo (zebrafish)      		 Purified lectin fraction [78,79]
      Benzofurans (e.g., laetirobin, egonol derivatives) Cytotoxic/anticancer
      Cytostatic at nanomolar concentrations (half-maximal inhibitory concentration: 0.1–0.5 nM against HCT116, Neuro-2a, HeLa)      		 In vitro Pure compound (host-dependent; isolated from L. sulphureus parasitic on Robinia pseudoacacia) [82]
      Organic acids (malic, citric, succinic, kojic acid) Tyrosinase inhibition (antimelanogenic) In vitro Fruiting body extracts
      Mycelial culture extracts      		 [39,73]
      Fatty acids (and lipophilic constituents) Antibacterial
      Antioxidant
      Anti-invasive (MMP-2/9 inhibition)      		 In vitro Lipophilic solvent fractions (hexane, chloroform, petroleum ether, ethyl acetate) [64,80,81]
      Proteins, vitamins, and trace metals/minerals Nutritional value Nutritional analysis Fruiting body extracts/powder [38,66]

      Table 2. 

      Bioactive compounds and key pharmacological activities in L. sulphureus.