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Content analysis is an analytical method used to evaluate various forms of printed, visual, or audio materials[41, 42]. It has been used to assess emergency management and hazard mitigation plans for their inclusion (or lack thereof) particular topics, concerns, or population groups. Bennett, for example, performed a content analysis of state emergency management plans to assess their inclusion of populations known to be at risk of impact during a disaster, such as older persons, persons with disabilities or chronic disease, children, and those with low-incomes or limited transportation options, among other populations[43]. She concluded that vulnerable populations aged above 65 years of age and population aged above 5 years of age with disabilities have not been sufficiently addressed in emergency management plans and therefore they tend to suffer more during disasters. Purdum & Meyer, similarly, analyzed state emergency operations plans for the inclusion of prison inmates in disaster mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery[44]. They developed a typology of different hazard-related tasks that may be assigned to inmates. Several content analysis studies assess the quality of hazard mitigation plans at various jurisdictional levels[45, 46].
Performing a content analysis of state hazard mitigation plans for their ability to address pandemics can reveal valuable insights into the steps proposed by states to counter pandemics as well as the effectiveness of these steps. With this goal, we have performed a content analysis of all the state hazard mitigation plans to identify the mitigation strategies for pandemics which are addressed in the plans. We have also identified the strategies which are not sufficiently addressed in the plans. This is the first study, to the best of our knowledge, which analyzes mitigation plans from a pandemic perspective. This study will be instrumental in providing some guidance while drafting updated hazard mitigation plans so that communities can be better prepared for another pandemic like the recent coronavirus pandemic.
We analyzed the hazard mitigation plans for 49 states, the District of Columbia, and four territories (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, and Puerto Rico). The Oklahoma hazard mitigation plan was updated in 2019, however the plan was not available on the official website. Hence, we excluded Oklahoma from our analysis. The New York hazard mitigation plan document was not available, however there is a website dedicated entirely to the hazard mitigation strategies for New York state which we analyzed. Similarly, we analyzed the hazard mitigation website for US Virgin Islands because the document was not available.
Figure 2 shows the number of hazard mitigation plans that had been updated every year since 2014. It can be observed from Fig. 2, that most of the plans (32 out of 54) were updated in 2018, which is a year before the advent of the ongoing coronavirus pandemic. The hazard mitigation plans which were updated in 2018 and after 2018 hardly addressed mitigation strategies for pandemics. However, during the ongoing coronavirus pandemic all the state governments had been working with federal government and the CDC to control the spread of the pandemic. The government authorities and the scientific community has been studying the nature of the coronavirus pandemic extensively. Therefore, we can hope for more mitigation strategies for pandemics in the next updated versions of the plans. Also, the District of Columbia and the territory of American Samoa had their mitigation plans last updated in 2014 and 2015. Therefore, those plans need to be updated soon to account for the impacts of a pandemic.
We manually analyzed the plans to identify keywords. It was found that keywords such as 'pandemic', 'epidemic', 'influenza', 'virus', and 'disease' have been frequently used throughout the plans while documenting the mitigation strategies. This finding was expected because the mitigation strategies in the plans have been based on the learnings from the past influenza pandemics. Some plans have used the words 'pandemic' and 'epidemic' interchangeably. This is understandable because pandemics are epidemics which occur throughout the world in different countries. The word 'disease' is used frequently because many plans address specific human and animal diseases that are encountered frequently in a particular state. Along with influenza virus, many other viruses, and diseases such as malaria, hantavirus, nipha virus, smallpox, measles, zika virus, cholera, mumps, Ebola, chikungunya, HIV, etc. were mentioned in the plans. Figures 3 & 4 show that influenza, West Nile virus, and plague are the most frequently discussed public health crises. About 31% (29 out of 54) of the plans address influenza, which is understandable because of the devastating impact of influenza pandemics in the past.
Figure 3.
Graph depicting the different public health crises mentioned in the hazard mitigation plans.
Figure 4.
State wise distribution of number of pandemic mitigation strategies employed by US states and territories.
Some plans addressed mitigation strategies for pandemics in the context of bioterrorism. We counted those strategies in our analysis because those strategies were also applicable in pandemics. For example, social distancing and self-isolation strategies are valid during a bioterrorism incident as well as a pandemic. However, bioterrorism is different to a pandemic. Bioterrorism is a manmade hazard which involves intentional outbreak of a disease on a large scale. Pandemics are not intentional.
Apart from influenza, West Nile virus, and plague, all the other viruses and diseases are addressed in varying proportions across all the plans. This might be because of the demographic and climatic factors of the state to which the plan belongs. For instance, a state with climatic conditions conducive to the growth of mosquitoes will focus on diseases like malaria in their hazard mitigation plan. Whereas a state with impure water supply problem will focus more on waterborne diseases in their hazard mitigation plan. The 54 state hazard mitigation plans were analyzed manually to identify the public health crises addressed by them. A summary of the different public health crises addressed in hazard mitigation plans for 49 states, the District of Columbia, and four territories (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, and Puerto Rico) is shown in Table 1. The results of the analysis were arranged as shown in Table 1 with an 'x' denoting the public health crises addressed in the corresponding state hazard mitigation plan. We have classified the results into four categories.
Table 1. Summary of different public health crises addressed in hazard mitigation plans for 49 states, the District of Columbia, and four territories (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, and Puerto Rico).
Hazard mitigation plans Influenza West Nile virus Plague Others Alabama Alaska American Samoa x Arizona x x x x Arkansas x x x California x x x x Colorado x x x x Connecticut x x Delaware x x District of Columbia Florida x x x Georgia Guam x x x Hawaii x x x Idaho x x x x Illinois x Indiana x x x Iowa Kansas x x Kentucky Louisiana x Maine Maryland Massachusetts x Michigan x Minnesota x x x Mississippi Missouri x x x x Montana x x x x Nebraska Nevada x x x New Hampshire x x x New Jersey x x x New Mexico New York North Carolina x x x x North Dakota x x x x Northern Mariana Islands Ohio x x x x Oregon Pennsylvania x x x x Puerto Rico Rhode Island x x South Carolina x x South Dakota Tennessee x x x Texas Utah Vermont x x x x Virginia x x x x Washington West Virginia Wisconsin x x Wyoming Finally, the plans were analyzed for the mitigation strategies proposed by the CDC. After manually analyzing the 54 state hazard mitigation plans, the coding scheme shown in Table 2 was proposed. Keywords 'pandemic' and 'influenza' were used to search through the documents to locate the relevant information on pandemic hazard mitigation. All the information related to any type of pandemics were thoroughly analyzed manually to identify the strategies that were being proposed in the 54 state hazard mitigation plans. Based on the results of the analysis, the strategies proposed in the plans were arranged as shown in Table 2 with a 'x' corresponding to every strategy that was mentioned in the plans. Keywords 'pandemic' and 'influenza' were used together because the influenza pandemics were found to be addressed the most frequently in the plans. We considered the strategies proposed for influenza pandemic specifically in our results because those strategies could be extended for other similar types of pandemics in the future.
Table 2. Summary of different mitigation strategies for pandemics addressed in hazard mitigation plans for 49 states, the District of Columbia, and four territories (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, and Puerto Rico).
Hazard
mitigation
plansMitigation strategies as suggested by CDC Vaccination Vulnerability assessment Economic consequences Only acknowledges the need for addressing pandemics Refers
to CDC
guidelinesRefers to
some other
Influenza
pandemic planUse of Personal Protective Equipment (PPEs) Self-isolation/ quarantine hygiene Restricted workplaces, schools, travel, and mass gatherings Alabama x Alaska American Samoa Arizona x x x x Arkansas x x x x x x x x California x x x x x x x x x Colorado x x x x x x x Connecticut x x Delaware x x x District of Columbia x Florida x x x x Georgia Guam x x Hawaii x x x x x x Idaho x x x x x x Illinois x x x x x x x x x Indiana x Iowa x x Kansas x x x x x Kentucky Louisiana x x Maine x Maryland Massachusetts x x Michigan x Minnesota x x x Mississippi x Missouri x x x x x x x Montana x x x x x Nebraska Nevada x x x New Hampshire x x x x New Jersey x x x x x New Mexico New York North Carolina x x x x x x North Dakota x x x x x x Northern Mariana Islands Ohio x Oregon x x Pennsylvania x x x x Puerto Rico Rhode Island x x x South Carolina x South Dakota x Tennessee x x x Texas Utah x Vermont x x Virginia x Washington x x West Virginia Wisconsin x x x Wyoming -
This analysis indicates there is much room for improvement to connect pandemic mitigation into hazard mitigation planning. Furthermore, the current coronavirus pandemic and the strategies undertaken across the world bring many more mitigation strategies that future planners could learn from and apply in mitigation plan revisions. Additional mitigation strategies for pandemics should be explored and could coincide with more traditional natural hazard mitigation actions. For instance, long-term mitigation strategies related to the built environment, for both reducing risk and speed of spread as well as pre-identifying needed strategic locations for testing, vaccination, and quarantine.
Also, the THA approach for mitigation planning needs to be implemented while drafting the new state hazard mitigation plans. This approach will be instrumental in developing more effective plans which are suited to the state population. Along with the THA approach, FEMA should mandate the inclusion of pandemics as a distinct class of hazards in multi-hazard mitigation planning like other hazards. Most state hazard mitigation plans do not consider pandemics as a distinct class of hazards and instead focus on a particular pandemic hazard such as influenza. After learning through the outcomes of the coronavirus pandemic, the hazard mitigation planners can add much detailed analysis of the mitigation steps necessary to curb the pandemic to avoid such disaster in future.
This pandemic with its economic consequences and social distancing requirements also highlights mental health impacts as a risk to be estimated and mitigated if possible. Strategies for addressing the mental stability of health care workers, which face long working hours are needed. Currently, Arkansas hazard mitigation plan addresses this issue. Therefore, more work needs to be done to address mental stability of health care workers. As the pandemic continues across the US, these mental health consequences are increasing for other populations as well, and preplanning for surge in these areas is needed.
Contact tracing is also not addressed adequately in the plans. A proper methodology needs to be proposed for carrying out contact tracing efficiently. Contact tracing has been implemented heavily in the ongoing coronavirus pandemic. A lot can be learned about contact tracing from the outcomes of the coronavirus pandemic. This will help in addressing contact tracing in future mitigation plans.
The impact of unavailability of public services on people and the economy needs to be addressed. This is an important issue which was not addressed in any plans we analyzed. Unavailability of public services such as transport, restaurants, essential groceries, etc. during pandemics can have a tremendous impact on people. Plans need to address this issue of shortage of public services. Also, shortage in services can lead to economic losses of many locally owned businesses. This can lead to an increase in homelessness and joblessness. These conditions can adversely impact the mental wellbeing of people and lead to mental illnesses. Mitigation plans also need to address this issue.
Moving forward, hazard mitigation planners can use lessons learned during the COVID-19 pandemic to identify needed mitigation features for future pandemics, thinking creatively about health in our built and social environments. Future researchers could evaluate how COVID-19 has changed hazard mitigation plans in the future and how well mitigation plans integrate with public health planning efforts.
A limitation of this research could be that the pandemic hazard mitigation strategies used for the content analysis of the 54 plans are adopted from CDC based on their recommendations for the recent coronavirus pandemic. More strategies could be identified and adopted along with the nine strategies mentioned in this paper for the content analysis based on the review of CDC recommendations for past pandemics.
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About this article
Cite this article
Pawar B, Meyer M, Wang Q. 2022. Content analysis of state hazard mitigation plans and their ability to address pandemics. Emergency Management Science and Technology 2:12 doi: 10.48130/EMST-2022-0012
Content analysis of state hazard mitigation plans and their ability to address pandemics
- Received: 12 August 2022
- Accepted: 10 November 2022
- Published online: 29 November 2022
Abstract: Hazard mitigation plans address hazards such as earthquakes, hurricanes, landslides, tornados, flooding more explicitly than pandemics or other public health crises. This paper analyzes and identifies pandemic-related mitigation strategies in state-level hazard mitigation plans across the United States. This study identifies common and uncommon strategies that could be included in plan updates such as: use of personal protective equipment (PPE), self-isolation/quarantine, hygiene, restricted gatherings, vaccination, vulnerability assessment, economic consequences analysis, acknowledging the need to address pandemics, and referring Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines. The 54 state-level plans are compared based on their inclusion of the nine strategies. Findings show that vaccination, self-isolation/ quarantine, and vulnerability assessment are the strategies most listed in plans. Additional concerns made evident by the 2020 coronavirus pandemic, such as contact tracing, environmental impact, and public services, were limited across the plans. It was concluded that long-term mitigation strategies for reducing the risk and speed of spread such as identifying strategic locations for testing, vaccination, and quarantine should be devised and implemented. Pandemics should be included as a distinct class of hazards while formulating state hazard mitigation plans. Strategies for addressing the impact of long working hours on the mental health of healthcare workers should be explored. Economic and psychological impact of unavailability of essential public services, such as transport and groceries, should be investigated and strategies should be formulated in the mitigation plans accordingly.
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Key words:
- Pandemics /
- Hazard mitigation plans /
- Public health /
- Content analysis /
- Mitigation strategies