ARTICLE   Open Access    

Effects of tied ridges and different cattle manure application rates on soil moisture and rainfall use efficiency on maize growth and yield in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe

More Information
  • A 3-year rainfed field experiment was carried out to determine the effects of combined tied ridges and cattle manure application rates on maize productivity. The experiment was laid as a 2 × 4 factorial in a completely randomized block design (CRBD) with three replicates. Treatment combinations were tied ridges + 7.5 t ha−1 low cattle manure (TLM), tied ridges + 15 t ha−1 standard cattle manure (TSM), and tied ridges + 22.5 t ha−1 high cattle manure (THM) application rates. No-tied ridges + low, medium, and high quantities of cattle manure were used as positive controls. Early maturing maize variety (SC537) was then planted at 52,000 plants ha−1 in each plot. Soil water storage, soil bulk density, rainfall, dry matter accumulation (DMA), and grain yield were measured. Rainfall use efficiency (RUE) was then calculated. Analysis of variance was carried out to determine the effects of tied ridging and cattle manure on soil moisture content, RUE, and grain yield. The addition of cattle manure in tied ridges increased the soil moisture content, RUE, DMA, and grain yield. The measured parameters were significantly (p < 0.05) increasing with an increase in the quantity of cattle manure applied. The THM had 40% higher soil moisture content, 20% more RUE, and > 50% DMA compared to TLM. Grain yields significantly (p < 0.05) increased with an increase in application rates of cattle manure with the highest (3.2 t ha−1) recorded in the 2022 season under the THM treatment. The THM had significantly (p < 0.05) higher grain yield compared to no-tied ridges combined with corresponding cattle manure application rates. Farmers can practice tied ridges and 22.5 t ha−1 cattle manure to improve RUE and maize grain yields in the semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe.
  • Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. (common names 'Baizhu' in Chinese and 'Byakujutsu' in Japanese) is a diploid (2n = 2x = 24) and out-crossing perennial herb in the Compositae family, and has a long history of cultivation in temperate and subtropical areas of East Asia as it is widely used in traditional herbal remedies with multiple pharmacological activities[13]. The 'Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China' states that 'Baizhu' is the dry rhizome of A. macrocephala Koidz. (Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma, AMR). However, in Japanese traditional medicine 'Baizhu' can be referred to both: A. japonica or A. macrocephala[4].

    A. macrocephala is naturally endemic to China and cultivated in more than 200 towns in China, belonging to Zhejiang, Hunan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Fujian, Sichuan, Hubei, Hebei, Henan, Jiangsu, Guizhou, Shanxi, and Shaanxi Provinces[3]. A. macrocephala grows to a height of 20–60 cm (Fig. 1). The leaves are green, papery, hairless, and generally foliole with 3–5 laminae with cylindric glabrous stems and branches. The flowers grow and aggregate into a capitulum at the apex of the stem. The corollas are purplish-red, and the florets are 1.7 cm long. The achenes, densely covered with white, straight hairs, are obconic and measure 7.5 mm long. The rhizomes used for medicinal purposes are irregular masses or irregularly curving cylinders about 3–13 cm long and 1.5–7 cm in diameter with an outwardly pale greyish yellow to pale yellowish color or a sparse greyish brown color. The periderm-covered rhizomes are externally greyish brown, often with nodose protuberances and coarse wrinkles. The cross-sections are white with fine dots of light yellowish-brown to brown secretion. Rhizomes are collected from plants that are > 2 years old during the spring. The fibrils are removed, dried, and used for medicinal purposes[5, 6].

    Figure 1.  Plant morphology of A. macrocephala.

    The medicinal properties of AMRs are used for spleen deficiency, phlegm drinking, dizziness, palpitation, edema, spontaneous sweating, benefit Qi, and fetal restlessness[7]. The AMR contains various functional components, among which high polysaccharide content, with a yield close to 30%[8]. Therefore, the polysaccharides of A. macrocephala Koidz. rhizome (AMRP) are essential in assessing the quality control and bioactivity of A. macrocephala. Volatile oil accounts for about 1.4% of AMR, with atractylon and atractylodin as the main components[9]. Atractylon can be converted to atractylenolide I (AT-I), atractylenolide II (AT-II), and atractylenolide III (AT-III) under ambient conditions. AT-III can be dehydrated to AT-II under heating conditions[10, 11]. AMRs, including esters, sesqui-, and triterpenes, have a wide range of biological activities, such as improving immune activity, intestinal digestion, neuroprotective activity, immune anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor.

    In recent years, research on the pharmacological aspects of AMR has continued to increase. Still, the discovery of the main active components in AMR is in its infancy. The PAO-ZHI processing of AMR is a critical step for AMR to exert its functional effects, but also, in this case, further work is required. Studies on the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds and different types of transcriptomes advanced current knowledge of A. macrocephala, but, as mentioned, required more systematic work. Ulteriorly, an outlook on the future research directions of A. macrocephala was provided based on the advanced technologies currently applied in A. macrocephala (Fig. 2).

    Figure 2.  Current progress of A. macrocephala.

    A. macrocephala is distributed among mountainous regions more than 800 m above sea level along the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River (China)[5]. Due to over-exploitation and habitat destruction, natural populations are rare, threatened, and extinct in many locations[1,12]. In contrast to its native range, A. macrocephala is widely cultivated throughout China, in a total area of 2,000–2,500 ha, with a yield of 7,000 t of rhizomes annually[13]. A. macrocephala is mainly produced in Zhejiang, Anhui, and Hebei (China)[14]. Since ancient times, Zhejiang has been the famous producing area and was later introduced to Jiangxi, Hunan, Hebei, and other places[15]. Wild A. macrocephala is currently present in at least 14 provinces in China. It is mainly distributed over three mountain ranges, including the Tianmu and Dapan mountains in Zhejiang Province and the Mufu mountains along the border of Hunan and Jiangxi Provinces. A. macrocephala grows in a forest, or grassy areas on mountain or hill slopes and valleys at an altitude of 600–2,800 m. A. macrocephala grows rapidly at a temperature of 22–28 °C, and favors conditions with total precipitation of 300–400 mm evenly distributed among the growing season[16]. Chen et al. first used alternating trilinear decomposition (ATLD) to characterize the three-dimensional fluorescence spectrum of A. macrocephala[17]. Then they combined the three-dimensional fluorescence spectrum with partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and k-nearest neighbor method (kNN) to trace the origin of Atractylodes samples. The results showed that the classification models established by PLS-DA and kNN could effectively distinguish the samples from three major Atractylodes producing areas (Anhui, Hunan, and Zhejiang), and the classification accuracy rate (CCR) of Zhejiang atractylodes was up to 80%, and 90%, respectively[17]. Zhang et al. compared the characteristics, volatile oil content, and chemical components of attested materials from six producing areas of Zhejiang, Anhui, Hubei, Hunan, Hebei, and Henan. Differences in the shape, size, and surface characteristics were reported, with the content of volatile oil ranging from 0.58% to 1.22%, from high to low, Hunan (1.22%) > Zhejiang (1.20%) > Anhui (1.02%) > Hubei (0.94%) > Henan (0.86%) > Hebei (0.58%)[18]. This study showed that the volatile oil content of A. macrocephala in Hunan, Anhui, and Hubei is not much different from that of Zhejiang, which is around 1%. A. macrocephala is a local herb in Zhejiang, with standardized cultivation techniques, with production used to reach 80%–90% of the country. However, in recent years, the rapid development of Zhejiang's real estate economy has reduced the area planted with Zhejiang A. macrocephala, resulting in a sudden decrease in production. Therefore, neighboring regions, such as Anhui and Hunan, vigorously cultivate A. macrocephala, and the yield and quality of A. macrocephala can be comparable to those of Zhejiang. The results were consistent with the data reports[18]. Guo et al. analyzed the differentially expressed genes of Atractylodes transcripts from different regions by the Illumina HiSeq sequencing platform. It was found that 2,333, 1,846, and 1,239 DEGs were screened from Hubei and Hebei, Anhui and Hubei, and Anhui and Hebei Atrexia, respectively, among which 1,424, 1,091, and 731 DEGs were annotated in the GO database. There were 432, 321, and 208 DEGs annotated in the KEGG database. These DEGs were mainly related to metabolic processes and metabolic pathways of secondary metabolites. The highest expression levels of these genes were found in Hubei, indicating higher terpenoid production in Hubei[19]. Other compounds were differentially accumulated in Atractylodes. Chlorogenic acid from Hebei was 0.22%, significantly higher than that from Zhejiang and Anhui[20]. Moreover, the content of neochlorogenic acid and chlorogenic acid decreased after processing, with the highest effect reported in Zhejiang, with the average transfer rate of neochlorogenic acid and chlorogenic acid reaching 55.68% and 55.05%[20]. All these changes would bring great help in distinguishing the origins of A. macrocephala.

    Medicinal AMR can be divided into raw AMR and cooked AMR. The processing method is PAO-ZHI; the most traditional method is wheat bran frying. The literature compared two different treatment methods, crude A. macrocephala (CA) and bran-processed A. macrocephala, and found that the pharmacological effects of AMR changed after frying with wheat bran, mainly in the anti-tumor, antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects[21]. The anti-inflammatory effect was enhanced, while the anti-tumor and antiviral effects were somewhat weakened, which may be related to the composition changes of the compounds after frying. The study of the content of AT-I, II, and III, and atractyloside A, in rat serum provided helpful information on the mechanism of wheat bran processing[22]. In addition to frying wheat bran, Sun et al. used sulfur fumigation to treat AMR[23]. They found that the concentration of different compounds changed, producing up to 15 kinds of terpenoids. Changes in pharmacological effects were related to treatment and the type of illumination[24,25]. Also, artificial light can improve the various biological functions. A. macrocephala grew better under microwave electrodeless light, with a chlorophyll content of 57.07 ± 0.65 soil and plant analyzer develotrnent (SPAD)[24]. The antioxidant activity of AMR extract treated with light-emitting diode (LED)-red light was the highest (95.3 ± 1.1%) compared with other treatments[24]. The total phenol and flavonoid contents of AMR extract treated with LED-green light were the highest at 24.93 ± 0.3 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g and 11.2 ± 0.3 mg quercetin equivalents (QE)/g compared with other treatments[24, 25]. Polysaccharides from Chrysanthemun indicum L.[26] and Sclerotium rolfsiisacc[27] can improve AMR's biomass and bioactive substances by stimulating plant defense and thus affect their efficacy. In summary, there are compositional differences between A. macrocephala from different origins. Besides, different treatments, including processing mode, light irradiation, and immune induction factors, which can affect AMR's biological activity, provide some reference for the cultivation and processing of A. macrocephala (Fig. 3).

    Figure 3.  Origin, distribution and processing of A. macrocephala.

    The AMR has been reported to be rich in polysaccharides, sesquiterpenoids (atractylenolides), volatile compounds, and polyacetylenes[3]. These compounds have contributed to various biological activities in AMR, including immunomodulatory effects, improving gastrointestinal function, anti-tumor activity, neuroprotective activity, and anti-inflammatory.

    AMRP has received increasing attention as the main active component in AMR because of its rich and diverse biological activities. In the last five years, nine AMRP have been isolated from AMR. RAMP2 had been isolated from AMR, with a molecular weight of 4.354 × 103 Da. It was composed of mannose, galacturonic acid, glucose, galactose, and arabinose, with the main linkages of →3-β-glcp-(1→, →3,6-β-glcp-(1→, →6-β-glcp-(1→, T-β-glcp-(1→, →4-α-galpA-(1→, →4-α-galpA-6-OMe-(1→, →5-α-araf-(1→, →4,6-β-manp-(1→ and →4-β-galp-(1→[28]. Three water-soluble polysaccharides AMAP-1, AMAP-2, and AMAP-3 were isolated with a molecular weight of 13.8 × 104 Da, 16.2 × 104 Da, and 8.5 × 104 Da, respectively. Three polysaccharides were deduced to be natural pectin-type polysaccharides, where the homogalacturonan (HG) region consists of α-(1→4)-linked GalpA residues and the ramified region consists of alternating α-(1→4)-linked GalpA residues and α-(1→2)-linked Rhap residues. Besides, three polysaccharides were composed of different ratios of HG and rhamnogalacturonan type I (RG-I) regions[29]. Furthermore, RAMPtp has been extracted from AMR with a molecular weight of 1.867 × 103 Da. It consists of glucose, mannose, rhamnose, arabinose, and galactose with 60.67%, 14.99%, 10.61%, 8.83%, and 4.90%, connected by 1,3-linked β-D Galp and 1,6-linked β-D Galp residues[30]. Additionally, PAMK was characterized by a molecular weight of 4.1 kDa, consisting of galactose, arabinose, and glucose in a molar ratio of 1:1.5:5, with an alpha structure and containing 96.47% polysaccharide and small amounts of protein, nucleic acid, and uric acid[31]. Another PAMK extracted from AMR had a molecular weight of 2.816 × 103 Da and consisted of glucose and mannose in molar ratios of 0.582 to 0.418[32]. Guo et al. isolated PAMK with a molecular weight of 4.748 × 103 g/mol from AMR, consisting of glucose, galactose, arabinose, fructose, and mannose in proportions of 67.01%, 12.32%, 9.89%, 1.18%, and 0.91%, respectively[33]. In addition, AMP1-1 is a neutral polysaccharide fragment with a molecular weight of 1.433 kDa isolated from AMR. It consists of glucose and fructose, and the structure was identified as inulin-type fructose α-D-Glcp-1→(2-β-D-Fruf-1)7[34]. These reports indicated that, in general, polysaccharides are extracted by water decoction, ultrasonic-assisted extraction, enzyme hydrolysis method, and microwave-assisted extraction. The separation and purification are column chromatography, stepwise ethanol precipitation, and ultrafiltration. Their physicochemical properties and structural characterization are generally achieved by determining the molecular weight, determining the monosaccharide composition, analyzing the secondary structure, and glycosidic bond configuration of polysaccharides with Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The advanced structures of polysaccharides can be identified by high-performance size exclusion chromatography-multiangle laser light scattering (HPSEC-MALLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques (Table 1). AMRP has various physiological functions, including immunomodulatory effects, improving gastrointestinal function, and anti-tumor activity. The related biological activities, animal models, monitoring indicators, and results are summarized in Table 1.

    Table 1.  Components and bioactivity of polysaccharides from Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. Rhizome.
    Pharmacological activitiesDetailed functionPolysaccharides informationModelDoseTest indexResultsRef.
    Immunomodulatory effectsRestore immune
    function
    /Chicken models
    (HS-induced)
    200 mg/kgOxidative index;
    Activities of mitochondrial complexes and ATPases;
    Ultrastructure in chicken spleens;
    Expression levels of cytokines, Mitochondrial dynamics- and apoptosis-related genes
    Alleviated
    the expression of
    IL-1 ↑,TNF-α ↑, IL-2 ↓, IFN- γ ↓; mitochondrial dynamics- and anti-apoptosis-related genes ↓; pro-apoptosis-related genes ↑;
    the activities of mitochondrial complexes and ATPases ↓ caused by HS
    [35]
    Regulate the immune function/Chicken models
    (HS-induced)
    200 mg/kgiNOS–NO activities;
    ER stress-related genes;
    Apoptosis-related genes;
    Apoptosis levels
    Alleviated NO content ↑; activity of iNOS ↑ in the chicken spleen; GRP78, GRP94, ATF4, ATF6, IRE ↑; caspase3 ↑; Bcl-2 ↓ caused by HS[36]
    Relieve immunosuppressionCommercial AMR powder (purity 70%)Geese models
    (CTX-induced)
    400 mg/kgSpleen development;
    Percentages of leukocytes in peripheral blood
    Alleviated the spleen damage;
    T and B cell proliferation ↓; imbalance of leukocytes; disturbances of humoral; cellular immunity caused by CTX
    [37]
    Active the lymphocytesCommercial AMR powder (purity 95%)Geese models
    (CTX-induced)
    400 mg/kgThymus morphology;
    The level of serum GMC-SF, IL-1b, IL-3, IL-5;
    mRNA expression of CD25, novel_mir2, CTLA4 and CD28 signal pathway
    Maintain normal cell morphology of thymus;
    Alleviated GMC-SF ↓, IL-1b ↓, IL-5↓, IL-6↓, TGF-b↓; IL-4 ↑, IL-10 ↑; novel_mir2 ↓, CD25↓, CD28↓ in thymus and lymphocytes caused by CTX
    [38]
    Alleviate immunosuppressionCommercial AMR powder (purity 70%)Geese models
    (CTX-induced)
    400 mg/kgThymus development;
    T cell proliferation rate;
    The level of CD28, CD96, MHC-II;
    IL-2 levels in serum;
    differentially expressed miRNAs
    Alleviated thymus damage;
    T lymphocyte proliferation rate ↓; T cell activation ↓; IL-2 levels ↓ caused by CTX;
    Promoted novel_mir2 ↑; CTLA4 ↓; TCR-NFAT signaling pathway
    [39]
    Alleviates T cell activation declineCommercial AMR powder (purity 95%)BALB/c female mice (CTX-induced)200 mg/kgSpleen index;
    Morphology, death, cytokine concentration of splenocytes;
    Th1/Th2 ratio, activating factors of lymphocytes;
    T cell activating factors;
    mRNA expression level in CD28 signal pathway
    Improved the spleen index;
    Alleviated abnormal splenocytes morphology and death; Balance Th1/Th2 ratio; IL-2 ↑, IL-6 ↑, TNF-α ↑, IFN-γ ↑; mRNA levels of CD28, PLCγ-1, IP3R, NFAT, AP-1 ↑
    [40]
    Immunoregulation and ImmunopotentiationCommercial AMR powder (purity 80%)BMDCs (LPS-induced);
    Female BALB/c mice (ovalbumin as a model antigen)
    /Surface molecule expression of BMDCs;
    Cytokines secreted by dendritic cell supernatants;
    OVA-specific antibodies in serum;
    Cytokines in serum;
    Lymphocyte immunophenotype
    Expression of CD80 and CD86 ↑; IL-1β ↑, IL-12 ↑, TNF-α↑ and IFN-γ ↑; OVA-specific antibodies in serum ↑; Secretion of cytokines ↑; Proliferation rate of spleen lymphocytes ↑; Activation of CD3+CD4+ and CD3+CD8+ lymphocytes[46]
    Increase immune-response capacity of the spleen in miceCommercial AMR powder (purity 70%)BALB/c female mice100, 200, 400 mg/kgSpleen index;
    Concentrations of cytokines;
    mRNA and protein expression levels in TLR4 signaling
    In the medium-PAMK group:
    IL-2, IL-4, IFN-c, TNF-a ↑; mRNA and protein expression of TLR4, MyD88, TRAF6, TRAF3, NF-κB in the spleen ↑
    [41]
    Immunological activityCommercial AMR powder (purity 80%)Murine splenic lymphocytes (LPS or PHA-induced)13, 26, 52, 104, 208 μg/mLT lymphocyte surface markersLymphocyte proliferation ↑;
    Ratio of CD4+/CD8+ T cells ↑
    [47]
    Immunomodulatory activityTotal carbohydrates content 95.66 %Mouse splenocytes
    (Con A or LPS-induced)
    25, 50, 100 μg/mLSplenocyte proliferation;
    NK cytotoxicity;
    Productions of NO and cytokines;
    Transcription factor activity;
    Signal pathways and receptor
    Promoted splenocyte proliferation; Cells enter S and G2/M phases; Ratios of T/B cells ↑; NK cytotoxicity ↑; Transcriptional activities of NFAT ↑; NF-κB, AP-1 ↑; NO, IgG, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12p40, IL-12p70, IL-13, IFN-γ, TNF-α, G-CSF, GM-CSF, KC, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, RANTES, Eotaxin ↑[42]
    Promote the proliferation of thymic epithelial cellsContents of fucrhaara, galactose, glucose, fructose,
    and xylitol: 0.98%, 0.40%, 88.67%, 4.47%, and 5.47%
    MTEC1 cells50 μg/mLCell viability and proliferation;
    lncRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs expression profiles in MTEC1 cells
    The differential genes were 225 lncRNAs, 29 miRNAs, and 800 mRNAs; Genes enriched in cell cycle, cell division, NF-κB signaling, apoptotic process, and MAPK signaling pathway[44]
    Immunomodulatory activityMW: 4.354 × 103 Da;
    Composed of mannose, galacturonic acid, glucose, galactose and arabinose;
    The main linkages are →3-β-glcp-(1→, →3,6-β-glcp-(1→, →6-β-glcp-(1→, T-β-glcp-(1→,
    →4-α-galpA-(1→, →4-α-galpA-6-OMe-(1→, →5-α-araf-(1→, →4,6-β-manp-(1→ and →4-β-galp-(1→
    CD4+ T cell50, 100, 200 μg/mLMolecular weight;
    Monosaccharide composition;
    Secondary structure;
    Surface topography;
    Effect on Treg cells
    Treg cells percentage ↑; mRNA expressions of Foxp3, IL-10 and IL-2 ↑; STAT5 phosphorylation levels ↑; IL-2/STAT5 pathway[28]
    Immunostimulatory activityMW of AMAP-1, AMAP-2, and AMAP-3 were 13.8×104 Da, 16.2×104 Da and 8.5×104 Da;
    HG region consists of α-(1→4)-linked GalpA residues
    RAW264.7 cells (LPS-induced)80, 40, 200 μg/mLMolecular weight;
    Total carbohydrate;
    Uronic acid contents;
    Secondary structure;
    Monosaccharide composition;
    Immunostimulatory activity
    RG-I-rich AMAP-1 and AMAP-2 improved the release of NO[29]
    Immunomodulatory effectMW: 1.867×103 Da;
    Contents of glucose, mannose, rhamnose,
    arabinose and galactose: 60.67%, 14.99%, 10.61%, 8.83% and 4.90%
    SMLN lymphocytes25
    μg/ml
    Molecular weight;
    Monosaccharide composition;
    Ultrastructure;
    Intracellular Ca2+concentration;
    Target genes;
    Cell cycle distribution
    [Ca2+]i ↑; More cells in S and G2/M phases; IFN-γ ↑, IL-17A ↑; mRNA expressions of IL-4 ↓[30]
    Macrophage activationTotal carbohydrates content 95.66 %RAW264.7 macrophages (LPS-induced)25, 50, 100 μg/mLPinocytic activity;
    Phagocytic uptake;
    Phenotypic characterization;
    Cytokine production;
    Bioinformatics analysis;
    Transcription factor inhibition
    IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-α ↑; CCL2 and CCL5 ↑; Pinocytic and phagocytic activity ↑; CD40, CD80, CD86, MHC-I, MHC-II ↑; NF-κB and Jak-STAT pathway[43]
    Immunomodulatory effectTotal carbohydrates content 95.66 %SMLN lymphocytes25, 50, 100 μg/mLCytokine production;
    CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes;
    Target genes;
    Bioinformatics analysis;
    T and B lymphocyte proliferation;
    Receptor binding and blocking
    IFN-γ, IL-1α, IL-21, IFN-α, CCL4, CXCL9, CXCL10 ↑; CD4+ and CD8+subpopulations proportions ↑;
    c-JUN, NFAT4, STAT1, STAT3 ↑;
    67 differentially expressed miRNAs (55 ↑ and
    12 ↓), associated with immune system pathways; Affect T and B lymphocytes
    [45]
    Improving gastrointestinal functionRelieve enteritis and improve intestinal
    flora disorder
    Commercial AMR powder (purity 70%);
    Contents of fucrhaara, galactose, glucose, xylitol, and fructose: 0.98%, 0.40%, 88.67%, 4.47%, and 5.47%
    Goslings (LPS-induced)400 mg/kgSerum CRP, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels;
    Positive rate of IgA;
    TLR4, occludin, ZO-1, cytokines, and immunoglobulin mRNA expression;
    Intestinal flora of gosling excrement
    Relieved IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α levels in serum ↑; the number of IgA-secreting cells ↑; TLR4 ↑; tight junction occludin and ZO-1 ↓; IL-1β mRNA expression in the small intestine ↑; Romboutsia ↓ caused by LPS[48]
    Ameliorate ulcerative colitisMW: 2.391 × 104 Da;
    Composed of mannose, glucuronic acid, glucose and arabinose in a molar ratio of 12.05:6.02:72.29:9.64
    Male C57BL/6J mice (DDS-induced)10, 20, 40 mg/kg bwHistopathological evaluation;
    Inflammatory mediator;
    Composition of gut microbiota;
    Feces and plasma for global metabolites profiling
    Butyricicoccus, Lactobacillus ↑;
    Actinobacteria, Akkermansia, Anaeroplasma, Bifidobacterium, Erysipelatoclostridium, Faecalibaculum, Parasutterella,
    Parvibacter, Tenericutes, Verrucomicrobia ↓;
    Changed 23 metabolites in fecal content; 21 metabolites in plasma content
    [49]
    Attenuate ulcerative colitis/Male SD rats (TNBS-induced);
    Co-culture BMSCs and IEC-6 cells
    540 mg/kg
    (for rats);
    400 μg/mL (for cell)
    Histopathological analysis;
    Cell migration;
    Levels of cytokines
    Potentiated BMSCs’ effect on preventing colitis and homing the injured tissue, regulated cytokines;
    BMSCs and AMP promoted the migration of IEC
    [52]
    Against intestinal mucosal injuryMW: 3.714 × 103 Da;
    Composed of glucose, arabinose, galactose, galacturonic acid, rhamnose
    and mannose with molar ratios of 59.09:23.22:9.32:4.70:2.07:1.59
    Male C57BL/6 mice (DDS-induced)100 mg/kgIntestinal morphology;
    IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β in serum;
    mRNA expression;
    Intestinal microbiota
    Alleviated body weight ↓; colon length ↓; colonic damage caused by DSS;
    Over-expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 ↓; Infiltration of neutrophils in colon ↓; Mucin 2 ↑;
    Tight junction protein Claudin-1 ↑;
    Harmful bacteria content ↓;
    Beneficial bacteria content ↑
    [50]
    Against intestinal injuryTotal carbohydrates 95.66 %IECs (DDS-induced)5, 25, 50 μg/mLCell proliferation and apoptosis;
    Expression levels of intercellular TJ proteins;
    lncRNA screening
    Proliferation and survival of IECs ↑;
    Novel lncRNA ITSN1-OT1 ↑;
    Blocked the nuclear import of phosphorylated STAT2
    [51]
    Anti-tumor activityInduce apoptosis in transplanted H22 cells in miceMW: 4.1× 103 Da;
    Neutral heteropolysaccharide composed of galactose, arabinose, and glucose with α-configuration (molar ratio, 1:1.5:5)
    Female Kunming mice100 and 200 mg/kg (for rats)Secondary structure;
    Molecular weight;
    Molecular weight;
    Thymus index and Spleen index;
    Lymphocyte Subpopulation in peripheral blood;
    Cell cycle distribution
    In tumor-bearing mice CD3+, CD4+, CD8+ ↓;
    B cells ↑
    [31]
    Regulate the innate immunity of colorectal cancer cellsCommercial AMR powder (purity 70%)C57BL/6J mice (MC38 cells xenograft model)500 mg/kgExpression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and secretionIL-6, IFN-λ, TNF-α, NO ↑ through MyD88/TLR4-dependent signaling pathway;
    Survival duration of mice with tumors ↑;
    Prevent tumorigenesis in mice
    [54]
    Induce apoptosis of Eca-109 cellsMW: 2.1× 103 Da;
    Neutral hetero polysaccharide composed
    of arabinose and glucose (molar ratio, 1:4.57) with pyranose rings and α-type and β-type glycosidic linkages
    Eca-109 cells0.25, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2.00 mg/mLCell morphology;
    Cell cycle arrest;
    Induction of apoptosis
    Accelerate the apoptosis of Eca109 cells[53]
    '/' denotes no useful information found in the study.
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    To study the immunomodulatory activity of AMRP, the biological models generally adopted are chicken, goose, mouse, and human cell lines. Experiments based on the chicken model have generally applied 200 mg/kg doses. It was reported that AMRP protected the chicken spleen against heat stress (HS) by alleviating the chicken spleen immune dysfunction caused by HS, reducing oxidative stress, enhancing mitochondrial function, and inhibiting cell apoptosis[35]. Selenium and AMRP could improve the abnormal oxidation and apoptosis levels and endoplasmic reticulum damage caused by HS, and could act synergistically in the chicken spleen to regulate biomarker levels[36]. It indicated that AMRP and the combination of selenium and AMRP could be applied as chicken feed supplementation to alleviate the damage of HS and improve chicken immunity.

    The general application dose in the goose model is also 200 mg/kg, and the main injury inducer is cyclophosphamide (CTX). AMRP alleviated CTX-induced immune damage in geese and provided stable humoral immune protection[37]. Little is known about the role of AMRP in enhancing immunity in geese through the miRNA pathway. It was reported that AMRP alleviated CTX-induced decrease in T lymphocyte activation levels through the novel _mir2/CTLA4/CD28/AP-1 signaling pathway[38]. It was also reported that AMRP might be achieved by upregulating the TCR-NFAT pathway through novel_mir2 targeting of CTLA4, thereby attenuating the immune damage induced by CTX[39]. This indicated that AMRP could also be used as goose feed supplementation to improve the goose's autoimmunity.

    The typical injury inducer for mouse models is CTX, and the effects on mouse spleen tissue are mainly observed. BALB/c female mice were CTX-induced damage. However, AMRP increased cytokine levels and attenuated the CTX-induced decrease in lymphocyte activation levels through the CD28/IP3R/PLCγ-1/AP-1/NFAT signaling pathway[40]. It has also been shown that AMRP may enhance the immune response in the mouse spleen through the TLR4-MyD88-NF-κB signaling pathway[41].

    Various cellular models have been used to study the immune activity of AMRP, and most of these studies have explored the immune activity with mouse splenocytes and lymphocytes. Besides, the commonly used damage-inducing agents are LPS, phytohemagglutinin (PHA), and concanavalin A (Con A).

    In one study, the immunoreactivity of AMRP was studied in cultured mouse splenocytes. LPS and Con A served as controls. Specific inhibitors against mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and NF-κB significantly inhibited AMRP-induced IL-6 production. The results suggested that AMRP-induced splenocyte activation may be achieved through TLR4-independent MAPKs and NF-κB signaling pathways[42]. Besides, AMRP isolated from AMR acting on LPS-induced RAW264.7 macrophages revealed that NF-κB and Jak-STAT signaling pathways play a crucial role in regulating immune response and immune function[43]. RAMP2 increased the phosphorylation level of STAT5 in Treg cells, indicating that RAMP2 could increase the number of Treg cells through the IL-2/STAT5 signaling pathway[28]. Furthermore, the relationship between structure and immune activity was investigated. Polysaccharides rich in RG-I structure and high molecular weight improved NO release from RAW264.7 cells. Conversly, polysaccharides rich in HG structure and low molecular weight did not have this ability, indicating that the immunoreactivity of the polysaccharide may be related to the side chain of RG-I region[29]. Moreover, the effect of AMRP on the expression profile of lncRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs in MTEC1 cells has also been investigated. The differentially expressed genes include lncRNAs, Neat1, and Limd1. The involved signaling pathways include cell cycle, mitosis, apoptotic process, and MAPK[44].

    Xu et al. found that AMRP affects supramammary lymph node (SMLN) lymphocytes prepared from healthy Holstein cows. Sixty-seven differentially expressed miRNAs were identified based on microRNA sequencing and were associated with immune system pathways such as PI3K-Akt, MAPKs, Jak-STAT, and calcium signaling pathways. AMRP exerted immunostimulatory effects on T and B lymphocytes by binding to T cell receptor (TCR) and membrane Ig alone, thereby mobilizing immune regulatory mechanisms within the bovine mammary gland[45].

    AMRP can also be made into nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC). Nanoparticles as drug carriers can improve the action of drugs in vivo. NLC, as a nanoparticle, has the advantages of low toxicity and good targeting[46]. The optimization of the AMRP-NLC preparation process has been reported. The optimum technologic parameters were: the mass ratio of stearic acid to caprylic/capric triglyceride was 2:1. The mass ratio of poloxamer 188 to soy lecithin was 2:1. The sonication time was 12 min. The final encapsulation rate could reach 76.85%[47]. Furthermore, AMRP-NLC interfered with the maturation and differentiation of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs). Besides, AMRP-NLC, as an adjuvant of ovalbumin (OVA), could affect ova-immunized mice with enhanced immune effects[46].

    AMRP also has the effect of alleviating intestinal damage. They are summarized in Table 1. The common damage-inducing agents are lipopolysaccharide (LPS), dextran sulfate sodium (DDS), and trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS). A model of LPS-induced enteritis in goslings was constructed to observe the effect of AMRP on alleviating small intestinal damage. Gosling excrement was analyzed by 16S rDNA sequencing to illuminate the impact of AMRP on the intestinal flora. Results indicated that AMRP could maintain the relative stability of cytokine levels and immunoglobulin content and improve intestinal flora disorder[48]. Feng et al. used DDS-induced ulcerative colitis (UC) in mice and explored the alleviating effects of AMRP on UC with 16S rDNA sequencing technology and plasma metabolomics. The results showed that AMRP restored the DDS-induced disruption of intestinal flora composition, regulated the production of metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids and cadaveric amines, and regulated the metabolism of amino acids and bile acids by the host and intestinal flora[49]. A similar study has reported that AMRP has a protective effect on the damage of the intestinal mucosal barrier in mice caused by DSS. It was found that AMRP increased the expression of Mucin 2 and the tight junction protein Claudin-1. In addition, AMRP decreased the proportion of harmful bacteria and increased the potentially beneficial bacteria content in the intestine[50]. The protective effect of AMRP on DSS-induced damage to intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) has also been investigated. The results showed that AMRP promoted the proliferation and survival of IECs.

    In addition, AMRP induced a novel lncRNA ITSN1-OT1, which blocked the nuclear import of phosphorylated STAT2 and inhibited the DSS-induced reduced expression and structural disruption of tight junction proteins[51]. AMRP can also act in combination with cells to protect the intestinal tract. The ulcerative colitis model in Male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats was established using TNBS, and BMSCs were isolated. IEC-6 and BMSCs were co-cultured and treated by AMRP. The results showed that AMRP enhanced the prevention of TNBS-induced colitis in BMSCs, promoted the migration of IEC, and affected the expression of various cytokines[52]. These reports indicated that the 16S rDNA sequencing technique could become a standard method to examine the improvement of gastrointestinal function by AMRP.

    AMRP has anti-tumor activity and other biological activities. AMRP can induce apoptosis in Hepatoma-22 (H22) and Eca-109 cells and modulate the innate immunity of MC38 cells. For instance, the anti-tumor effects of AMRP were investigated by constructing a tumor-bearing mouse model of H22 tumor cells. AMRP blocked the S-phase of H22 tumor cells and induced an immune response, inhibiting cell proliferation[31]. In addition, AMRP can inhibit cell proliferation through the mitochondrial pathway and by blocking the S-phase of Eca-109 tumor cells[53]. AMRP affects MC38 tumor cells, and the anti-tumor effect of AMRP was investigated with Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) KO C57BL/6 mice and the construction of the MC38 tumor cell xenograft model. AMRP significantly inhibited the development of MC38 cells in mice and prolonged the survival of tumor-bearing mice. AMRP activity was diminished in TLR4 KO mice. Combined with the immunoblotting assay results, it was shown that TLR4 regulated the MyD88-dependent signaling pathway, which has a critical effect on the anti-tumor effect of AMRP[54].

    AMR contains a large number of bioactive compounds. Among them, small molecule compounds include esters, sesquiterpenes, and other compounds. These small molecule compounds have significant pharmacological activities, including anti-tumor, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory. In the last five years, small molecule compounds have been increasingly identified (Fig. 4), with atractylenolides as the main component of AMR extracts[11]. Atractylenolides are a small group of sesquiterpenoids. Atractylenolides include AT-I, AT-II, and AT-III, lactones isolated from AMR.

    Figure 4.  Structure of small molecule compounds with bioactivities from AMR. Atractylenolide I (1); Atractylenolide II (2); Atractylenolide III (3); 3β-acetoxyl atractylenolide I (4); 4R,5R,8S,9S-diepoxylatractylenolide II (5); 8S,9S-epoxyla-tractylenolide II (6); Atractylmacrols A (7); Atractylmacrols B (8); Atractylmacrols C (9); Atractylmacrols D (10); Atractylmacrols E (11); 2-[(2E)-3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienyl]-6-methyl-2,5-cyclohexadiene-1,4-dione (12); 8-epiasterolid (13); (3S,4E,6E,12E)-1-acetoxy-tetradeca-4,6,12-triene-8,10-diyne-3,14-diol (14); (4E,6E,12E)-tetradeca-4,6,12-triene-8,10-diyne-13,14-triol (15); 1-acetoxy-tetradeca-6E,12E-diene-8, 10-diyne-3-ol (16); 1,3-diacetoxy-tetradeca-6E, 12E-diene-8,10-diyne (17); Biatractylenolide II (18); Biepiasterolid (19); Biatractylolide (20).

    The anti-tumor activity was mainly manifested by AT-I and AT-II, especially AT-I (Table 2). Anti-tumor activity has been studied primarily in vivo and in vitro. However, there is a lack of research on the anti-tumor activity of atractylenolide in human clinical trials. The concentration of atractylenolide applied on cell lines was < 400 μM, or < 200 mg/kg on tumor-bearing mice.

    Table 2.  Anti-tumor activity of atractylenolides.
    TypesSubstancesModelIndexDoseSignal pathwayResultsRef.
    Human colorectal cancerAT-IIIHCT-116 cell;
    HCT-116 tumor xenografts bearing in nude mice
    Cell viability;
    Cell apoptotic;
    mRNAs and protein
    expressions of Bax, Bcl-2, caspase-9 and caspase-3
    25, 50, 100, 200 μM (for cell);
    50, 100,
    200 mg/kg (for rats)
    Bax/Bcl-2 signaling pathwayPromoting the expression of proapoptotic related gene/proteins; Inhibiting the expression of antiapoptotic related gene/protein; Bax↑; Caspase-3↓; p53↓; Bcl-2↓[55]
    Human gastric carcinomaAT-IIHGC-27 and AGS cell
    Cell viability;
    Morphological changes;
    Flow cytometry;
    Wound healing;
    Cell proliferation, apoptosis, and motility
    50, 100, 200, 400 μMAkt/ERK signaling pathwayCell proliferation, motility↓; Cell apoptosis↑; Bax↑;
    Bcl-2↓; p-Akt↓; p-ERK↓
    [56]
    Mammary
    tumorigenesis
    AT-IIMCF 10A cell;
    Female SD rats (NMU-induced)
    Nrf2 expression and nuclear accumulation;
    Cytoprotective effects;
    Tumor progression;
    mRNA and protein levels of Nrf2;
    Downstream detoxifying enzymes
    20, 50, 100 μM (for cell);
    100 and 200 mg/kg (for rats)
    JNK/ERK-Nrf2-ARE signaling pathway;
    Nrf2-ARE signaling pathway
    Nrf2 expressing↑; Nuclear translocation↑; Downstream detoxifying enzymes↓; 17β-Estradiol↓; Induced malignant transformation[57]
    Human colon adenocarcinomaAT-IHT-29 cellCell viability;
    TUNEL and Annexin V-FITC/PI double stain;
    Detection of initiator and
    executioner caspases level
    10, 20, 40, 80, 100 μMMitochondria-dependent pathwayPro-survival Bcl-2↓; Bax↑; Bak↑; Bad↑; Bim↑; Bid↑; Puma↑[58]
    Sensitize triple-negative
    TNBC cells to paclitaxel
    AT-IMDA-MB-231 cell;
    HS578T cell;
    Balb/c mice (MDA-MB-231 cells-implanted)
    Cell viability
    Transwell migration
    CTGF expression
    25, 50, 100 μM (for cell);
    50 mg/kg (for rats)
    /Expression and secretion of CTGF↓; CAF markers↓; Blocking CTGF expression and fibroblast activation[59]
    Human ovarian cancerAT-IA2780 cellCell cycle;
    Cell apoptosis;
    Cyclin B1 and CDK1 level
    12.5, 25, 50, 100 and 200 μMPI3K/Akt/mTOR
    signaling pathway
    Cyclin B1, CDK1↓; Bax↑;
    Caspase-9↓; Cleaved caspase-3↓; Cytochrome c↑; AIF↑; Bcl-2↓; Phosphorylation level of PI3K, Akt, mTOR↓
    [60]
    Impaired metastatic properties transfer of CSCsAT-ILoVo-CSCs; HT29-CSCsCell migration
    and invasion;
    miR-200c expression;
    Cell apoptosis
    200 μMPI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathwaySuppressing miR-200c activity; Disrupting EV uptake by non-CSCs[61]
    Colorectal cancerAT-IHCT116 cell;
    SW480 cell;
    male BALB/c nude mice (HCT116-implanted)
    Cell viability;
    Cell apoptosis;
    Glucose uptake;
    Lactate Production;
    STAT3 expression;
    Immunohistological analysis
    25, 50, 100, 150, 200 μM (for cell);
    50 mg/kg (for rats)
    JAK2/STAT3 signalingCaspase-3↑; PARP-1↓;
    Bax↑; Bcl-2↓; Rate-limiting glycolytic
    enzyme HK2↓; STAT3 phosphorylation↓
    [62]
    Human lung cancerAT-INSCLC cells (A549 and H1299);
    female nude mice (A549-Luc cells- implanted)
    Cell viability;
    Cell cycle;
    Phosphorylation and protein expression of
    ERK1/2, Stat3,
    PDK1, transcription factor SP1;
    mRNA levels of PDK1 gene
    12.5, 25, 50, 100, 150 μM (for cell);
    25 and 75 mg/kg (for rats)
    /ERK1/2↑; Stat3↓; SP1↓;
    PDK1↓
    [63]
    '/' denotes no useful information found in the study.
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    AT-III affects human colorectal cancer. AT-II affects human gastric carcinoma and mammary tumorigenesis. AT-I affects human colon adenocarcinoma, human ovarian cancer, metastatic properties transfer of Cancer stem cells (CSCs), colorectal cancer, and human lung cancer, and enhances the sensitivity of triple-negative breast cancer cells to paclitaxel. Current techniques have made it possible to study the effects of atractylenolide on tumors at the signaling pathway level (Table 2). For instance, AT-III significantly inhibited the growth of HCT-116 cells and induced apoptosis by regulating the Bax/Bcl-2 apoptotic signaling pathway. In the HCT116 xenograft mice model, AT-III could inhibit tumor growth and regulate the expression of related proteins or genes. It indicated that AT-III could potentially treat human colorectal cancer[55]. AT-II significantly inhibited the proliferation and motility of HGC-27 and AGS cells and induced apoptosis by regulating the Akt/ERK signaling pathway. It suggested that AT-II can potentially treat gastric cancer[56]. However, in this study, the anti-tumor effects of AT-II in vivo were not examined. AT-II regulated intracellular-related enzyme expression in MCF 10A cells through the JNK/ERK-Nrf2-ARE signaling pathway. AT-II reduced inflammation and oxidative stress in rat mammary tissue through the Nrf2-ARE signaling pathway. AT-II inhibited tumor growth in the N-Nitroso-N-methyl urea (NMU)-induced mammary tumor mice model, indicating that AT-II can potentially prevent breast cancer[57]. AT-I induced apoptosis in HT-29 cells by activating anti-survival Bcl-2 family proteins and participating in a mitochondria-dependent pathway[58]. It indicated that AT-I is a potential drug effective against HT-29 cells. However, the study was only conducted in vitro; additional in vivo experimental data are needed. AT-I can enhance the sensitivity of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells to paclitaxel. MDA-MB-231 and HS578T cell co-culture systems were constructed, respectively. AT-I was found to impede TNBC cell migration. It also enhanced the sensitivity of TNBC cells to paclitaxel by inhibiting the conversion of fibroblasts into cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) by breast cancer cells. In the MDA-MB-231 xenograft mice model, AT-I was found to enhance the effect of paclitaxel on tumors and inhibit the metastasis of tumors to the lung and liver[59]. AT-I inhibited the growth of A2780 cells through PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway, promoting apoptosis and blocking the cell cycle at G2/M phase change, suggesting a potential therapeutic agent for ovarian cancer[60]. However, related studies require in vivo validation trials. CSCs are an important factor in tumorigenesis. CSCs isolated from colorectal cancer (CRC) cells can metastasize to non-CSCs via miR-200c encapsulated in extracellular vesicles (EVs).

    In contrast, AT-I could inhibit the activity and transfer of miR-200c. Meanwhile, interfere with the uptake of EVs by non-CSCs. This finding contributes to developing new microRNA-based natural compounds against cancer[61]. AT-I has the function of treating colorectal cancer. HCT116 and SW480 cells were selected for in vitro experiments, and AT-I was found to regulate STAT3 phosphorylation negatively. The HCT116 xenograft mice model was constructed, and AT-I was found to inhibit the growth of HCT116. AT-I induced apoptosis in CRC cells, inhibited glycolysis, and blocked the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway, thus exerting anti-tumor activity[62]. The in vitro experiments were performed with A549 and H1299 cell lines. The in vivo experiments were performed to construct the A549-Luc xenograft mice model. The results showed that AT-I inhibited lung cancer cell growth by activating ERK1/2. AT-I inhibited SP1 protein expression and phosphorylation of Stat3, decreasing PDK1 gene expression. The study showed that AT-I could inhibit lung cancer cell growth and targeting PDK1 is a new direction for lung cancer treatment[63]. The research on the anti-tumor of atractylenolide is relatively complete, and there are various signaling pathways related to its anti-tumor activity. Based on the above information, the anti-tumor mechanism of atractylenolide in the past five years was schemed (Fig. 5).

    Figure 5.  Schematic diagram for the anti-tumor mechanism of atractylenolides.

    In recent years, few studies have been conducted on the neuroprotective activity of esters or sesquiterpenoids from AMR. The neuroprotective effects of AT-III have been studied systematically. Biatractylolide has also been considered to have a better neuroprotective effect. New compounds continue to be identified, and their potential neuroprotective effects should be further explored. The related biological activities, animal models, monitoring indicators, and results are summarized in Table 3. Neuroprotective effects include the prevention and treatment of various diseases, such as Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, anti-depressant anxiety, cerebral ischemic injury, neuroinflammation, and hippocampal neuronal damage. In vivo and in vitro will shed light on the potential effect of sesquiterpenoids from AMR and other medicinal plants.

    Table 3.  Neuroprotective effects of esters and sesquiterpenoids.
    ActivitiesSubstancesModelIndexDoseSignal pathwayResultsRef.
    Establish a PD modelAT-II; AT-I;
    Biepiasterolid;
    Isoatractylenolide I;
    AT-III; 3β-acetoxyl atractylenolide I;
    (4E,6E,12E)- tetradeca-4,6,12-triene-8,10-diyne-13,14-triol;
    (3S,4E,6E,12E)-1-acetoxy-tetradeca-4,6,12-triene-8,10-diyne-3,14-diol
    SH-SY5Y cell (MPP+-induced)Cell viability10, 1, 0.1 μM/All compounds have inhibitory activity on MPP+-
    induced SH-SY5Y cell
    [64]
    /4R,5R,8S,9S-diepoxylatractylenolide II;
    8S,9S-epoxyla-tractylenolide II
    BV-2 microglia cells (LPS-induced)Cell viability;
    NO synthase
    inhibitor;
    IL-6 levels
    6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 100 μMNF-κB signaling
    pathway
    NO inhibition with IC50 values
    of 15.8, and 17.8 μМ, respectively;
    IL-6 ↓
    [65]
    Protecting Alzheimer’s diseaseBiatractylolidePC12 cell (Aβ25-35-induced);
    Healthy male Wistar rats (Aβ25-35-induced)
    Cell viability;
    Morris water maze model;
    TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β
    20, 40, 80 μM (for cells);
    0.1, 0.3, 0.9 mg/kg (for rats)
    NF-κB signaling
    pathway
    Reduce apoptosis; Prevent cognitive decline; Reduce the activation of NF-κB signal pathway[66]
    /BiatractylolidePC12 and SH-SY5Y cell (glutamate-induced)Cell viability;
    Cell apoptosis;
    LDA;
    Protein expression
    10, 15, 20 μMPI3K-Akt-GSK3β-Dependent
    Pathways
    GSK3β protein expression ↓;
    p-Akt protein expression ↑
    [67]
    Parkinson's DiseaseAT-IBV-2 cells (LPS-induced);
    Male C57BL6/J mice (MPTP-intoxicated)
    mRNA and protein levels;
    Immunocytochemistry; Immunohistochemistry;
    25, 50, 100 μM (for cells);
    3, 10, 30 mg/kg/mL (for rats)
    /NF-κB ↓; HO-1 ↑; MnSOD ↑; TH-immunoreactive neurons ↑; Microglial activation ↓[68]
    Anti depressant like effectAT-IMale ICR mice (CUMS induced depressive like behaviors)Hippocampal neurotransmitter levels;
    Hippocampal pro inflammatory cytokine levels;
    NLRP3 inflammasome in the hippocampi
    5, 10, 20 mg/kg/Serotonin ↓;
    Norepinephrine ↓; NLRP3 inflammasome ↓; (IL)-1β ↓
    [69]
    Alzheimer's diseaseBiatractylenolide II/AChE inhibitory activities;
    Molecular docking
    //Biatractylenolide II can interact with PAS and CAS of AChE[70]
    Cerebral ischemic injury and
    neuroinflammation
    AT-IIIMale C57BL/6J mice (MCAO- induced);
    Primary microglia (OGDR
    stimulation)
    Brain infarct size;
    Cerebral blood flow;
    Brain edema;
    Neurological deficits;
    Protein expressions of proinflammatory;
    Anti-inflammatory
    cytokines
    0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 100 μM (for cells);
    0.1–10 mg/kg
    (for rats)
    JAK2/STAT3/Drp1-dependent mitochondrial fissionBrain infarct size ↓;
    Restored CBF;
    ameliorated brain edema; Improved neurological deficits;
    IL-1β ↓; TNF-α ↓; IL-6 ↓;
    Drp1 phosphorylation ↓
    [71]
    Reduces depressive- and anxiogenic-like behaviorsAT-IIIMale SD rats (LPS-induced and CUMS rat model)Forced swimming test;
    Open field test;
    Sucrose preference test;
    Novelty-suppressed feeding test;
    Proinflammatory cytokines levels
    3, 10, 30 mg/kg/30 mg/kg AT-III produced an anxiolytic-like effect; Prevented depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors; Proinflammatory cytokines levels ↓[72]
    Alleviates
    injury in rat
    hippocampal neurons
    AT-IIIMale SD rats (isoflurane-induced)Apoptosis and autophagy in the hippocampal neurons;
    Inflammatory factors;
    Levels of p-PI3K,
    p-Akt, p-mTOR
    1.2, 2.4, 4.8 mg/kgPI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathwayTNF-α ↓; IL-1β ↓; IL-6 ↓; p-PI3K ↑; p-Akt ↑; p-mTOR ↑[73]
    ''/' denotes no useful information found in the study.
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Zhang et al. identified eight compounds from AMR, two newly identified, including 3β-acetoxyl atractylenolide I and (3S,4E,6E,12E)-1-acetoxy-tetradecane-4,6,12-triene-8,10-diyne-3,14-diol. 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) could be used to construct a model of Parkinson's disease. A model of MPP+-induced damage in SH-SY5Y cells was constructed. All eight compounds showed inhibitory effects on MPP+-induced damage[64]. Si et al. newly identified eight additional sesquiterpenoids from AMR. A model of LPS-induced BV-2 cell injury was constructed. 4R, 5R, 8S, 9S-diepoxylatractylenolide II and 8S, 9S-epoxylatractylenolide II had significant anti-neuroinflammatory effects. Besides, the anti-inflammatory effect of 4R, 5R, 8S, 9S-diepoxylatractylenolide II might be related to the NF-κB signaling pathway[65]. Biatractylolide has a preventive effect against Alzheimer's disease. In vitro experiments were conducted by constructing an Aβ25-35-induced PC12 cell injury model. In vivo experiments were conducted by constructing an Aβ25-35-induced mice injury model to examine rats' spatial learning and memory abilities. Biatractylolide reduced hippocampal apoptosis, alleviated Aβ25-35-induced neurological injury, and reduced the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Thus, it can potentially treat Aβ-related lesions in the central nervous system[66]. It has also been shown that biatractylolide has neuroprotective effects via the PI3K-Akt-GSK3β-dependent pathway to alleviate glutamate-induced damage in PC12 and SH-SY5Y cells[67]. The attenuating inflammatory effects of AT-I were examined by constructing in vivo and in vitro Parkinson's disease models. Furthermore, AT-I alleviated LPS-induced BV-2 cell injury by reducing the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. AT-I restored 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced behavioral impairment in C57BL6/J mice, protecting dopaminergic neurons[68]. AT-I also has anti-depressant effects. Chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) induced depressive behavior in institute of cancer research (ICR) mice, and AT-I achieved anti-depressant function by inhibiting the activation of NLRP3 inflammatory vesicles, thereby reducing IL-1β content levels[69]. Biatractylenolide II is a newly identified sesquiterpene compound with the potential for treating Alzheimer's disease. The AChE inhibitory activity of biatractylenolide II was measured, and molecular simulations were also performed. It was found to interact with the peripheral anion site and active catalytic site of AChE[70]. AT-III has a broader neuroprotective function. The middle cerebral artery (MCAO) mouse model and oxygen-glucose deprivation-reoxygenation (OGDR) microglia model were constructed. AT-III was found to ameliorate brain edema and neurological deficits in MCAO mice. In addition, AT-III suppressed neuroinflammation and reduced ischemia-related complications through JAK2/ STAT3-dependent mitochondrial fission in microglia[71]. In order to investigate the anti-depressant and anti-anxiolytic effects of AT-III, the LPS-induced depression model and CUMS model were constructed. Combined with the sucrose preference test (SPT), novelty-suppressed feeding test (NSFT), and forced swimming test (FST) to demonstrate that AT-III has anti-depressant and anti-anxiolytic functions by inhibiting hippocampal neuronal inflammation[72]. In addition, AT-III also has the effect of attenuating hippocampal neuronal injury in rats. An isoflurane-induced SD rats injury model was constructed. AT-III alleviated apoptosis, autophagy, and inflammation in hippocampal neurons suggesting that AT-III can play a role in anesthesia-induced neurological injury[73]. However, AT-III attenuates anesthetic-induced neurotoxicity is not known.

    Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activities are studied in vivo and in vitro. The construction of an inflammatory cell model in vitro generally uses RAW 264.7 macrophages. Different cells, such as BV2 microglia, MG6 cells, and IEC-6 cells, can also be used. Active compounds' immune and anti-inflammatory activity is generally examined using LPS-induced cell and mouse models. For enteritis, injury induction is performed using TNBS and DSS. Several studies have shown that AT-III has immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activities. Other sesquiterpene compounds also exhibit certain activities. The related biological activities, animal models, monitoring indicators, and results are summarized in Table 4. For example, five new sesquiterpene compounds, atractylmacrols A-E, were isolated from AMR. The anti-inflammatory effect of the compounds was examined with LPS-induced RAW264.7 macrophage damage, and atractylmacrols A-E were found to inhibit NO production[74]. Three compounds, 2-[(2E)-3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienyl]-6-methyl-2, 5-cyclohexadiene-1, 4-dione (1); 1-acetoxy-tetradeca-6E,12E-diene-8, 10-diyne-3-ol (2); 1,3-diacetoxy-tetradeca-6E, 12E-diene-8,10-diyne (3) were isolated from AMR. All three compounds could inhibit the transcriptional activity and nuclear translocation of NF-κB. The most active compound was compound 1, which reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibited MAPK phosphorylation[75]. Twenty-two compounds were identified from AMR. LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages and BV2 cell injury models were constructed, respectively. Among them, three compounds, AT-I, AT-II, and 8-epiasterolid showed significant damage protection in both cell models and inhibited LPS-induced cell injury by inactivating the NF-κB signaling pathway[76]. To construct a TNBS-induced mouse colitis model, AT-III regulated oxidative stress through FPR1 and Nrf2 signaling pathways, alleviated the upregulation of FPR1 and Nrf2 proteins, and reduced the abundance of Lactobacilli in injured mice[77]. AT-III also has anti-inflammatory effects in peripheral organs. A model of LPS-injured MG6 cells was constructed. AT-III alleviated LPS injury by significantly reducing the mRNA expression of TLR4 and inhibiting the p38 MAPK and JNK pathways[78]. It indicated that AT-III has the potential as a therapeutic agent for encephalitis. The neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of AT-III were investigated in a model of LPS-induced BV2 cell injury and a spinal cord injury (SCI) mouse model. AT-III alleviated the injury in SCI rats, promoted the conversion of M1 to M2, and attenuated the activation of microglia/macrophages, probably through NF-κB, JNK MAPK, p38 MAPK, and Akt signaling pathways[79]. AT-III has a protective effect against UC. DSS-induced mouse model and LPS-induced IEC-6 cell injury model were constructed. AT-III alleviated DSS and LPS-induced mitochondrial dysfunction by activating the AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling pathway[80].

    Table 4.  Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activities of esters and sesquiterpenoids.
    ActivitiesSubstanceModelIndexDoseSignal pathwayResultRef.
    Against LPS-induced NO productionAtractylmacrols A-ERAW264.7 macrophages (LPS-induced)Isolation;
    Structural identification;
    Inhibition activity of
    NO production
    25 μM/Have effects on LPS-induced NO production[74]
    Anti-inflammatory2-[(2E)-3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienyl]-6-methyl-2,5-cyclohexadiene-1,
    4-dione;
    1-acetoxy-tetradeca-6E,12E-diene-8, 10-diyne-3-ol;
    1,3-diacetoxy-tetradeca-6E, 12E-diene-8,
    10-diyne
    RAW 264.7
    macrophages (LPS-induced)
    Level of NO and PGE2;
    Level of iNOS, COX-2;
    Levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines;
    Phosphorylation of MAPK(p38, JNK, and ERK1/2)
    2 and 10 μMNF-κB signaling pathwayIL-1β ↓; IL-6 ↓; TNF-α ↓;
    p38 ↓; JNK ↓; ERK1/2 ↓
    [75]
    Anti-inflammatoryAT-I; AT-II;
    8-epiasterolid
    RAW264.7 macrophages;
    BV2 microglial cells (LPS-
    induced)
    Structure identification;
    NO, PGE2 production;
    Protein expression of iNOS, COX-2, and cytokines
    40 and 80 μMNF-κB signaling pathway.NO ↓; PGE2 ↓; iNOS ↓;
    COX-2 ↓; IL-1β ↓; IL-6 ↓; TNF-α ↓
    [76]
    Intestinal inflammationAT-IIIMale C57BL/6 mice (TNBS-induced)Levels of myeloperoxidase;
    Inflammatory factors;
    Levels of the prooxidant markers, reactive oxygen species, and malondialdehyde;
    Antioxidant-related enzymes;
    Intestinal flora
    5, 10, 20 mg/kgFPR1 and Nrf2 pathwaysDisease activity index score ↓; Myeloperoxidase ↓; Inflammatory factors interleukin-1β ↓; Tumor necrosis factor-α ↓; Antioxidant enzymes catalase ↓; Superoxide dismutase ↓; Glutathione peroxidase ↓; FPR1 and Nrf2 ↑; Lactobacilli ↓[77]
    Anti-inflammatoryAT-IIIMG6 cells (LPS-
    induced)
    mRNA and protein levels of TLR4,
    TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, COX-2;
    Phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and JNK
    100 μMp38 MAPK and JNK signaling pathwaysTNF-α ↓; IL-1β ↓; IL-6 ↓;
    iNOS ↓; COX-2 ↓
    [78]
    Ameliorates spinal cord injuryAT-IIIBV2 microglial (LPS-
    induced);
    Female SD rats (Infinite Horizon impactor)
    Spinal cord lesion area;
    Myelin integrity;
    Surviving neurons;
    Locomotor function;
    Microglia/macrophages;
    Inflammatory factors
    1, 10, 100 μM (for cell);
    5 mg/kg (for rats)
    NF-κB,
    JNK MAPK, p38 MAPK, and Akt pathways
    Active microglia/macrophages;
    Inflammatory mediators ↓
    [79]
    Ulcerative colitisAT-IIIIEC-6 (LPS-induced);
    C57BL/6J male mice (DSS-induced)
    MDA,GSH content;
    SOD activity;
    Intestinal permeability;
    Mitochondrial membrane potential;
    Complex I and complex IV activity
    40 and 80 μM (for cell);
    5 and 10 mg/kg (for rats)
    AMPK/
    SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling pathway
    Disease activity index ↓;
    p-AMPK ↑; SIRT1 ↑;
    PGC-1α ↑;
    Acetylated PGC-1α ↑
    [80]
    '/' denotes no useful information found in the study.
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    The biosynthetic pathways for bioactive compounds of A. macrocephala are shown in Fig. 6. The biosynthetic pathways of all terpenes include the mevalonate (MVA) pathway in the cytosol and the 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway in the plastid[81]. The cytosolic MVA pathway is started with the primary metabolite acetyl-CoA and supplies isopentenyl (IPP), and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) catalyzed by six enzymatic steps, including acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase (AACT), hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA synthase (HMGS), hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGR), mevalonate kinase (MVK), phosphomevalonate kinase (PMK) and mevalonate 5-phosphate decarboxylase (MVD)[82]. IPP and DMAPP can be reversibly isomerized by isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase (IDI)[83]. In the MEP pathway, D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP) and pyruvate are transformed into IPP and DMAPP over seven enzymatic steps, including 1-deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase (DXS), 1-deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR), 2C-methyl-d-erythritol 4-phosphate cytidyltransferase (MECT), 4-(cytidine 5′-diphospho)-2C-methyl-d-erythritol kinase (CMK), 2C-methyl-d-erythritol-2,4-cyclodiphosphate synthase (MECP), 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl diphosphate synthase (HDS) and 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl diphosphate reductase (HDR) were involved in the whole process[84]. The common precursor of sesquiterpenes is farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) synthesized from IPP and DMAPP under the catalysis of farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FPPS)[85]. Various sesquiterpene synthases, such as β-farnesene synthase (β-FS), germacrene A synthase (GAS), β-caryophyllene synthase (QHS), convert the universal precursor FPP into more than 300 different sesquiterpene skeletons in different species[8689]. Unfortunately, in A. macrocephala, only the functions of AmFPPS in the sesquiterpenoid biosynthetic pathway have been validated in vitro[90]. Identifying sesquiterpene biosynthesis in A. macrocephala is difficult due to the lack of: isotope-labeled biosynthetic pathways, constructed genetic transformation system, and high-quality genome.

    Figure 6.  Biosynthetic pathways for bioactive compounds of A. macrocephala.

    With the gradual application of transcriptome sequencing technology in the study of some non-model plants, the study of A. macrocephala has entered the stage of advanced genetics and genomics. Yang et al. determined the sesquiterpene content in the volatile oil of AMR by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in A. macrocephala. Mixed samples of leaves, stems, rhizomes, and flowers of A. macrocephala were sequenced by Illumina high throughput sequencing technology[91]. Similarly, compounds' relative content in five A. macrocephala tissue was quantitatively detected by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Sesquiterpenoids accumulations in rhizomes and roots were reported[90]. Seventy-three terpenoid skeleton synthetases and 14 transcription factors highly expressed in rhizomes were identified by transcriptome analysis. At the same time, the function of AmFPPS related to the terpenoid synthesis pathway in A. macrocephala was verified in vitro[90]. In addition to the study of the different tissue parts of A. macrocephala, the different origin of A. macrocephala is also worthy of attention. The AMR from different producing areas was sequenced by transcriptome. Seasonal effects in A. macrocephala were also studied. Interestingly, compared with one-year growth AMR, the decrease of terpenes and polyketone metabolites in three-year growth AMR was correlated with the decreased expression of terpene synthesis genes[92]. Infestation of Sclerotium rolfsii sacc (S. rolfsii) is one of the main threats encountered in producing A. macrocephala[93]. To explore the expression changes of A. macrocephala-related genes after chrysanthemum indicum polysaccharide (CIP) induction, especially those related to defense, the samples before and after treatment were sequenced. The expression levels of defense-related genes, such as polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) genes, were upregulated in A. macrocephala after CIP treatment[94].

    Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), specifically herbal medicine, possesses intricate chemical compositions due to both primary and secondary metabolites that exhibit a broad spectrum of properties, such as acidity-base, polarity, molecular mass, and content. The diverse nature of these components poses significant challenges when conducting quality investigations of TCM[95]. Recent advancements in analytical technologies have contributed significantly to the profiling and characterizing of various natural compounds present in TCM and its compound formulae. Novel separation and identification techniques have gained prominence in this regard. The aerial part of A. macrocephala (APA) has been studied for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The active constituents have been analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS). The results indicated that APA extracts and all sub-fractions contain a rich source of phenolics and flavonoids. The APA extracts and sub-fractions (particularly ACE 10-containing constituents) exhibited significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity[96]. In another study, a four-dimensional separation approach was employed using offline two-dimensional liquid chromatography ion mobility time-of-flight mass spectrometry (2D-LC/IM-TOF-MS) in combination with database-driven computational peak annotation. A total of 251 components were identified or tentatively characterized from A. macrocephala, including 115 sesquiterpenoids, 90 polyacetylenes, 11 flavonoids, nine benzoquinones, 12 coumarins, and 14 other compounds. This methodology significantly improved in identifying minor plant components compared to conventional LC/MS approaches[97]. Activity-guided separation was employed to identify antioxidant response element (ARE)-inducing constituents from the rhizomes of dried A. macrocephala. The combination of centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) and an ARE luciferase reporter assay performed the separation. The study's results indicate that CPC is a potent tool for bioactivity-guided purification from natural products[98]. In addition, 1H NMR-based metabolic profiling and genetic assessment help identify members of the Atractylodes genus[99]. Moreover, there were many volatile chemical compositions in A. macrocephala. The fatty acyl composition of seeds from A. macrocephala was determined by GC-MS of fatty acid methyl esters and 3-pyridylcarbinol esters[100]. Fifteen compounds were identified in the essential oil extracted from the wild rhizome of Qimen A. macrocephala. The major components identified through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis were atractylone (39.22%) and β-eudesmol (27.70%). Moreover, gas purge microsolvent extraction (GP-MSE) combined with GC-MS can effectively characterize three species belonging to the Atractylodes family (A. macrocephala, A. japonica, and A. lancea)[101].

    So far, the research on A. macrocephala has focused on pharmacological aspects, with less scientific attention to biogeography, PAO-ZHI processing, biosynthesis pathways for bioactive compounds, and technology application. The different origins lead to specific differences in appearance, volatile oil content, volatile oil composition, and relative percentage content of A. macrocephala. However, A. macrocephala resources lack a systematic monitoring system regarding origin traceability and quality control, and there is no standardized process for origin differentiation. Besides, the PAO-ZHI processing of A. macrocephala is designed to reduce toxicity and increase effectiveness. The active components will have different changes before and after processing. But current research has not been able to decipher the mechanism by which the processing produces its effects. Adaptation of in vivo and in vitro can facilitate understanding the biological activity. The choice of the models and doses is particularly important. The recent studies that identified AMR bioactivities provided new evidence but are somewhat scattered. For example, in different studies, the same biological activity corresponds to different signaling pathways, but the relationship between the signaling pathways has not been determined. Therefore, a more systematic study of the various activities of AMR is one of the directions for future pharmacological activity research of A. macrocephala. In addition, whether there are synergistic effects among the active components in AMR also deserves further study, but they are also more exhaustive. As for the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds in A. macrocephala, the lack of isotopic markers, mature genetic transformation systems, and high-quality genomic prediction of biosynthetic pathways challenge the progress in sesquiterpene characterization. In recent years, the transcriptomes of different types of A. macrocephala have provided a theoretical basis and research foundation for further exploration of functional genes and molecular regulatory mechanisms but still lack systematicity. Ulteriorly, applying new technologies will gradually unlock the mystery of A. macrocephala.

    This work was supported by the Key Scientific and Technological Grant of Zhejiang for Breeding New Agricultural Varieties (2021C02074), National Young Qihuang Scholars Training Program, National 'Ten-thousand Talents Program' for Leading Talents of Science and Technology Innovation in China, National Natural Science Foundation of China (81522049), Zhejiang Provincial Program for the Cultivation of High level Innovative Health Talents, Zhejiang Provincial Ten Thousands Program for Leading Talents of Science and Technology Innovation (2018R52050), Research Projects of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (2021JKZDZC06, 2022JKZKTS18). We appreciate the great help/technical support/experimental support from the Public Platform of Pharmaceutical/Medical Research Center, Academy of Chinese Medical Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University.

  • The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

  • [1]

    Nyamadzawo G, Wuta M, Nyamangara J, Gumbo D. 2013. Opportunities for optimization of in-field water harvesting to cope with changing climate in semi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe. Springer Plus 2:100

    doi: 10.1186/2193-1801-2-100

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [2]

    Kubiku FNM, Nyamadzawo G, Nyamangara J, Mandumbu R. 2022. Effect of contour rainwater-harvesting and integrated nutrient management on sorghum grain yield in semi-arid farming environments of Zimbabwe. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section B - Soil & Plant Science 72:364−74

    doi: 10.1080/09064710.2021.2005130

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [3]

    Kugedera AT, Mango L, Kokerai LK. 2020. Effects of integrated nutrient management and tied ridges on maize productivity in dry regions of Zimbabwe. Octa Journal of Biosciences 8(1):7−13

    Google Scholar

    [4]

    Zhang XF, Luo CL, Ren HX, Mburu D, Wang BZ, et al. 2021. Water productivity and its allometric mechanism in mulching cultivated maize (Zea mays L. ) in semiarid Kenya. Agricultural Water Management 246:106647

    doi: 10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106647

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [5]

    Mudatenguha F, Anena J, Kiptum CK, Mashingaidze AB. 2014. In situ rain water harvesting techniques increases maize growth and grain yield in a semi-arid agro-ecology of Nyagatare, Rwanda. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 16:996−1000

    Google Scholar

    [6]

    Nyagumbo I, Nyamadzawo G, Madembo C. 2019. Effects of three in-field water harvesting technologies on soil water content and maize yields in a semi-arid region of Zimbabwe. Agricultural Water Management 216:206−13

    doi: 10.1016/j.agwat.2019.02.023

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [7]

    Mucheru-Muna M, Mugendi D, Kung'u J, Mugwe J, Bationo A. 2007. Effects of organic and mineral fertilizer inputs on maize yield and soil chemical properties in a maize cropping system in Meru South District, Kenya. Agroforestry Systems 69:189−97

    doi: 10.1007/s10457-006-9027-4

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [8]

    Munyasya AN, Koskei K, Zhou R, Liu ST, Indoshi SN, et al. 2022. Integrated on site & off-site rainwater-harvesting system boosts rainfed maize production for better adaptation to climate change. Agricultural Water Management 269:107672

    doi: 10.1016/j.agwat.2022.107672

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [9]

    Mupangwa W, Twomlow S, Walker S. 2012. Dead level contours and infiltration pits for risk mitigation in smallholder cropping systems of southern Zimbabwe. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 47–48:166−72

    doi: 10.1016/j.pce.2011.06.011

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [10]

    Eleduma AF, Aderibigbe ATB, Obabire SO. 2020. Effect of cattle manure on the performances of maize (Zea mays L.) grown in forest-savannah transition zone Southwest Nigeria. International Journal of Agricultural Science and Food Technology 6(2):110−14

    doi: 10.17352/2455-815X.000063

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [11]

    Chilagane EA, Saidia PS, Kahimba FC, Asch F, Germer J, et al. 2020. Effects of Fertilizer Micro-dose and In Situ Rain Water Harvesting Technologies on Growth and Yield of Pearl Millet in a Semi-arid Environment. Agricultural Research 9:609−21

    doi: 10.1007/s40003-020-00454-7

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [12]

    Parwada C, Van Tol J. 2019. Effects of litter quality on macroaggregates reformation and soil stability in different soil horizons. Environment, Development and Sustainability 21:1321−39

    doi: 10.1007/s10668-018-0089-z

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [13]

    Mugwe J, Ngetich F, Otieno EO. 2019. Integrated soil fertility management in sub-Saharan Africa: evolving paradigms toward integration. InZero Hunger. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, eds. Leal Filho W, Azul A, Brandli L, Özuyar P, Wall T. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69626-3_71-1

    [14]

    Kimaru-Muchai SW, Ngetich FK, Mucheru-Muna MW, Baaru M. 2021. Zai pits for heightened sorghum production in drier parts of Upper Eastern Kenya. Heliyon 7:e08005

    doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08005

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [15]

    Coulibaly B. 2017. Impact of water harvesting techniques and nutrient management options on the yield of pearl millet in the Sahelian Zone of Mali. Thesis. Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. pp 193.

    [16]

    Traore K, Sidibe DK, Coulibaly H, Bayala J. 2017. Optimizing yield of improved varieties of millet and sorghum under highly variable rainfall conditions using contour ridges in Cinzana, Mali. Agriculture & Food Securityrity 6:11

    doi: 10.1186/s40066-016-0086-0

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [17]

    Wuta M, Nyamadzawo G, Nyamasoka B, Nyawasha R, Matayaya G, et al. 2018. Rainwater harvesting options to support off-season small-scale irrigation in arid and semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe. In Rainwater-Smart Agriculture in arid and semi-arid areas, eds. Leal Filho W, de Trincheria Gomez J. Cham: Springer. pp. 175–97. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66239-8_10

    [18]

    Kimaru-Muchai S, Ngetich F, Baaru M, Mucheru-Muna PMW. 2020. Adoption and utilisation of Zai pits for improved farm productivity in drier upper Eastern Kenya. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics 121(1):13−22

    doi: 10.17170/kobra-202002281030

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [19]

    Kugedera AT, Mango L, Kokeraİ L. 2020. Evaluating the effects of integrated nutrient management and insitu rainwater harvesting on maize production in dry regions of Zimbabwe. International Journal of Agriculture Environment and Food Sciences 4(3):303−10

    doi: 10.31015/jaefs.2020.3.9

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [20]

    Vanlauwe B, Descheemaeker K, Giller KE, Huising J, Merckx R, et al. 2015. Integrated soil fertility management in sub-Saharan Africa: unravelling local adaptation. Soil 1:491−508

    doi: 10.5194/soil-1-491-2015

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [21]

    Motsi KE, Chuma E, Mukamuri BB. 2004. Rainwater harvesting for sustainable agriculture in communal lands of Zimbabwe. Physics And Chemistry Earth, Parts A/B/C 29:1069−73.

    doi: 10.1016/j.pce.2004.08.008

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [22]

    IUSS Working Group WRB. 2015. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014: International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. World Soil Resources Reports No. 106. FAO, Rome. www.fao.org/3/i3794en/I3794en.pdf

    [23]

    Parwada C, Chigiya V, Ngezimana W, Chipomho J. 2020. Growth and performance of Baby Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) grown under different organic fertilizers. International Journal of Agronomy 2020:8843906

    doi: 10.1155/2020/8843906

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [24]

    Okalebo JB, Gathua KW, Woomer PL. 2000. Laboratory Methods of Soil and Plant Analysis: A Working Manual. Nairobi, Kenya: TSBF-KARI-UNESCO.

    [25]

    Rowland AP, Grimshaw HM. 1985. A wet oxidation procedure suitable for total nitrogen and phosphorus in soil. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 16:551−60

    doi: 10.1080/00103628509367628

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [26]

    Masaka J, Dera J, Muringaniza K. 2020. Dryland grain Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) yield and yield component responses to tillage and mulch practices under subtropical African Conditions. Agricultural Research 9:349−57

    doi: 10.1007/s40003-019-00427-5

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

    [27]

    Shumba A, Dunjana N, Nyamasoka B, Nyamugafata P, Madyiwa S, et al. 2020. Maize (Zea mays) yield and its relationship to soil properties under integrated fertility, mulch and tillage management in urban agriculture. South African Journal of Plant and Soil 37:120−22

    doi: 10.1080/02571862.2019.1678686

    CrossRef   Google Scholar

  • Cite this article

    Parwada C, Makore F, Chipomho J, Makuvaro V, Bandason W. 2024. Effects of tied ridges and different cattle manure application rates on soil moisture and rainfall use efficiency on maize growth and yield in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe. Technology in Agronomy 4: e021 doi: 10.48130/tia-0024-0018
    Parwada C, Makore F, Chipomho J, Makuvaro V, Bandason W. 2024. Effects of tied ridges and different cattle manure application rates on soil moisture and rainfall use efficiency on maize growth and yield in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe. Technology in Agronomy 4: e021 doi: 10.48130/tia-0024-0018

Figures(2)  /  Tables(5)

Article Metrics

Article views(1788) PDF downloads(413)

ARTICLE   Open Access    

Effects of tied ridges and different cattle manure application rates on soil moisture and rainfall use efficiency on maize growth and yield in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe

Technology in Agronomy  4 Article number: e021  (2024)  |  Cite this article

Abstract: A 3-year rainfed field experiment was carried out to determine the effects of combined tied ridges and cattle manure application rates on maize productivity. The experiment was laid as a 2 × 4 factorial in a completely randomized block design (CRBD) with three replicates. Treatment combinations were tied ridges + 7.5 t ha−1 low cattle manure (TLM), tied ridges + 15 t ha−1 standard cattle manure (TSM), and tied ridges + 22.5 t ha−1 high cattle manure (THM) application rates. No-tied ridges + low, medium, and high quantities of cattle manure were used as positive controls. Early maturing maize variety (SC537) was then planted at 52,000 plants ha−1 in each plot. Soil water storage, soil bulk density, rainfall, dry matter accumulation (DMA), and grain yield were measured. Rainfall use efficiency (RUE) was then calculated. Analysis of variance was carried out to determine the effects of tied ridging and cattle manure on soil moisture content, RUE, and grain yield. The addition of cattle manure in tied ridges increased the soil moisture content, RUE, DMA, and grain yield. The measured parameters were significantly (p < 0.05) increasing with an increase in the quantity of cattle manure applied. The THM had 40% higher soil moisture content, 20% more RUE, and > 50% DMA compared to TLM. Grain yields significantly (p < 0.05) increased with an increase in application rates of cattle manure with the highest (3.2 t ha−1) recorded in the 2022 season under the THM treatment. The THM had significantly (p < 0.05) higher grain yield compared to no-tied ridges combined with corresponding cattle manure application rates. Farmers can practice tied ridges and 22.5 t ha−1 cattle manure to improve RUE and maize grain yields in the semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe.

    • About 70% of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) rely mainly on rainfed agriculture[1]. However, these farmers are resource-constrained but contribute significantly toward food security in developing countries hence their production methods and output are of major concern. Unfortunately, a larger proportion (> 60%) of the SSA experience persistent droughts and are characterized by inherently low fertile soils making rainfed agriculture a challenge[2]. The limited rainfall and low soil fertility are therefore twin constraints to animal and crop production in the SSA. Farmers in these semi-arid areas are encouraged to grow drought tolerant crops and early maturing crop varieties like pearl millet, barnyard millet, and sorghum[3]. Nevertheless, farmers are still opting to grow drought-prone and input-intensive but high-yielding crops e.g. maize because of their numerous benefits.

      Maize is preferred by farmers due to its higher potential yield per unit area compared to small grain cereals, its dual-purpose use (grain and fodder); use as a cash crop, and raw materials for industry[4]. In many parts of the world, maize is grown in areas that receive 300−500 mm yr−1 precipitation, which is approximately the critical level for obtaining a good yield[5]. In Zimbabwe, improved maize yields are observed in areas that receive an average rainfall of > 500 mm yr−1 yield though production also depends on the variety in question[6]. To achieve high grain yield in maize, the rainfall should be effective and evenly distributed throughout the growing season. Unfortunately, climate change has resulted in uneven rainfall distribution patterns, and more rainfall is usually received at the beginning and end of the season than mid-season. In Zimbabwe, approximately 68% of summer (wet-season) maize is rain-fed and usually susceptible to the erratic behavior of rains[3]. This results in severe moisture stress at the critical maize growth stages and ultimately reduces yield. However, maize adaptation should deal not only with changes in rainfall averages but also with the increased frequency and intensity of extreme events[7]. Under normal rainfall (> 550 mm yr−1), the average maize yield in Zimbabwe is 5 t ha−1 for most varieties but very low (< 0.6 t ha−1) among smallholder farmers[5].

      A large proportion (> 60%) of Zimbabwe is semi-arid and receives < 450 mm rainfall per annum which mostly occurs early in the rainy season[4]. Therefore, crops usually experience moisture stress from the pre-flowering to late grain-filling stages[8]. The moisture stress negatively affects many physiological processes e.g. photosynthesis, nutrient uptake, reproductive system, and seed set in maize[4]. Therefore, maize yield in semi-arid areas is declining due to natural intermittent water deficit stress caused by depleted soil moisture. Infield soil moisture conservation and soil fertility enhancement practices become key for improved agricultural output. Maize production can be improved through the use of in-field water harvesting techniques in combination with organic nutrient sources[9,10]. Interactive effects of rainwater harvesting methods and organic nutrient sources can be better options for addressing issues of soil moisture stress and soil fertility[11].

      Coupled with effective in-field soil moisture conservation practices such as mulching and tied ridging, maize production is possible in dry areas (receiving average annual rainfall of < 650 mm) of Zimbabwe[1]. To achieve sustainable and effective soil moisture conservation in the semi-arid areas, there is a need to improve the soil status first since the soils are predominantly sandy and structureless with very low water holding capacity. Adoption of physical in-field rainfall harvesting strategies e.g. tied ridges or potholing alone will be ineffective moisture conservation strategies under such soils. In this case, addition of soil organic matter (SOM) can be ideal since it modifies soil properties e.g water holding capacity, pH, and cation exchange capacity (CEC)[12]. Higher (> 28 °C) summer temperatures in semi-arid areas exacerbate moisture depletion due to the least organic matter content[13]. Hence, organic amendments incorporation may enhance the organic matter content of the soil leading to increased moisture conservation and plant nutrient availability. The soil moisture conservation strategies should therefore aim to improve also the soil structure e.g. by increasing the soil organic matter (SOM).

      There is a potential for the use of tied ridges to improve soil moisture as the method harvests rainwater stores it, and recharges water in the plant root zone[14,15]. Moisture improvement can also be augmented by the application of cattle manure which increases soil organic carbon, nitrogen content, and total porosity by reducing macropores to micropores[16]. Cattle manure reduces soil bulk density, and increases microbial population which facilitates decomposition and changes soil structure[10]. This increases the mineralization and decomposition of soil organic matter releasing nutrients and hence retaining a lot of moisture.

      However, the conventional practice of applying little or no manure to the soil resulted in very low soil water storage efficiency (ratio of stored water to rainfall during the growing season)[17]. Therefore, there is a need to develop technologies that optimize the use of the limited water and soil resources to achieve sustainable crop production. Rational use of organic manure has been observed to increase water infiltration, water retention, soil water storage, grain yield, and rainfall use efficiency[16,18]. Maize production can be improved through the use of in-field water harvesting techniques in combination with organic nutrient sources[10]. Interactive effects of rainwater harvesting methods and organic nutrient sources can be better options for addressing issues of soil moisture stress and soil fertility[6,19]. Numerous infield soil moisture conservation practices such as tied ridges, potholing, fanya juu, and contour ridges have been extensively promoted among smallholder farming. The in-situ infield water harvesting is used to capture and store water as it rains. They improve soil moisture by enhancing infiltration and reducing runoff and evaporation[20].

      In situ, water harvesting systems such as tied-ridging and sub-soiling improved the soil water storage in the root zone during the cropping period compared to traditional tillage by 24% and 15% respectively[14,20]. Similarly, in the semi-arid areas, tied ridges improved barley yield by 44% compared to traditional tillage[17,21]. Nevertheless, these are usually promoted in isolation ignoring the poor soil fertility aspect hence, are ineffective interventions to improve crop production in the semi-arid parts of Zimbabwe. Therefore, the present research was done to study the effects of three rates of cattle manure combined with tied ridges on dry matter accumulation and rainfall use efficiency of maize at various growth phases in drier areas of Zimbabwe. This study aimed to produce scientific evidence for providing an essential framework for farmers in semi-arid areas on how to optimize crop management practices for conserving soil water, rainfall use efficiency, and achieving high- crop yield. A realistic understanding of the soil's capacity to store water and assess available water before planting will help identify planting opportunities and potential crop yields.

    • A field experiment was done in the 2019/20−2021/22 cropping seasons (October to April) in Muzokomba, Buhera, Manicaland Province, Zimbabwe. The area is > 800 m altitude above sea level and is located in Zimbabwe’s natural farming region V which receives ≤ 450 mm of rainfall per annum. The cropping season is characterized by severe mid-season dry spells. The field was used for cereal crop production without the use of fertilizers before the experiment. The area is predominantly occupied by Lixisols[22].

    • The experiment had tied ridges combined with three manure application rates laid as a 2 × 4 factorial in a completely randomized block design (CRBD) with three replicates. The plots were made of tied ridges that were 2 m apart with a ridge height of 35 cm. Cross ties were put at 5 m intervals and were raised to 20 cm in height to minimize breakage from the flowing water.

      An early maturity (120 days to maturity) SeedCo maize variety (SC537) was planted in the last week of October each year. The planting population was 0.8 inter-row × 0.23 in row spacing to obtain a total of 52,000 plants ha−1. Each experimental plot was 10 m × 8 m with a net area of 25 m2. Generally, in Zimbabwe maize crop requires 67 kg N ha−1 hence the quantities of fertilizer applied were calculated based on this N requirement. Inorganic fertilizer (21 kg N ha−1 was supplied through Compound D (7% N) : (14% P2O5) : (7% K2O) at 300 kg ha−1 at planting and the reminder 46 kg N ha−1 was applied through Ammonium nitrate at 100 kg N ha−1 after maize emergence). All the organic manure was applied before planting the maize. The inorganic fertilizer was applied using the blanket recommended rate (300 kg ha−1 i.e., 21 kg N ha−1) in the Muzokomba area. The organic manure application rates were also applied according to the N requirement of the maize crop. Hence, the quantities of organic manure applied were determined according to the amount of extractable NO2/NO3 (mg kg−1) in the manure (Table 1). Cattle manure was applied at 50% N (low manure), 100% N (standard manure), and 150% N (high manure) which corresponded to 7.5 t ha−1, 15 t ha−1, and 22.5 t ha−1 respectively. The cattle manure was repeatedly applied in each year of the experiment to mimic the cultural practice in the smallholder agricultural sector. Therefore, the treatment combinations for tied ridges were tied ridges + 7.5 t ha−1 low cattle manure (TLM), tied ridges + 15 t ha−1 standard cattle manure (TSM), and tied ridges + 22.5 t ha−1 high cattle manure (THM) application rates. For no-tied ridges were: No-tied ridges + 7.5 t ha−1 low cattle manure (NTLM), No-tied ridges + 15 t ha−1 standard cattle manure (NTSM), and No-tied ridges + 22.5 t ha−1 high cattle manure (NTHM) application rates. The No-tied ridges + 0% cattle manure (NT0%) and tied ridges + 0% cattle (T 0%) manure were included as positive controls.

      Table 1.  The initial chemical properties of the soil at the Muzokomba area, experimental field and cattle manure used in the study.

      Parameter Soil Cattle manure
      Sand (%) 78 ± 2.3 2 ± 0.1
      Silt (%) 18 ± 2.3 0.7 ± 0.2
      Clay (%) 3 ± 2.3 0.01 ± 001
      pH (H2O) 4.2 ± 1.2 6.98 ± 0.3
      EC (dSm−1) 4.1 ± 0.03 8.12 ± 0.1
      CEC (cmol(+)kg−1) 8.0 ± 0.5 314.2 ± 0.8
      Total C (%) 0.7 ± 0.04 30.5 ± 0.4
      Total N (%) 0.5 ± 0.03 4.16 ± 0.2
      C:N ratio 0.3 ± 0.01 8.8 ± 0.7
      Olsen extractable P (mg kg−1) 55.0 ± 7.3 620.4 ± 17.8
      Extractable NO2/NO3 (mg kg−1) 29.2 ± 2.04 980.5 ± 8.7
      Extractable NH4 (mg kg−1) 98.4 ± 0.8 386.3 ± 2.8
      K (mg kg−1) 6.4 ± 0.6 3.2 ± 0.5
      Ca (cmol(+) kg−1) 0.3 ± 0.05 27.1 ± 2.5
      Mg (cmol(+) kg−1) 24.5 ± 1.9 10.8 ± 2.1
      Na (cmol(+) kg−1) 0.45 ± 0.03 2.6 ± 0.7
      Cu (cmol(+) kg−1) 110.1 ± 36.1 305.2 ± 38.6
      Zn (cmol(+) kg−1) 70.2 ± 6.9 412.8 ± 0.6
      Bulk density (kg cm−3) 1.52 ± 0.8
      EC, electrical conductivity; CEC, cation exchange capacity. Data are means ± standard error of the means for three replicates.
    • Four soil samples were taken to a depth of 0−40 cm using a soil auger in July 2019. Soil samples were mixed in a plastic bucket to produce a composite sample (1 kg) which was shade-dried for soil analysis. Cattle manure was sourced from the local farmers in the Muzokomba area and sun-dried for one week to attain uniform moisture content. Then, 500 g of manure was randomly sampled and taken for analysis while the bulky manure was stored for use. The soil and cattle manure were analyzed as explained by Parwada et al.[23]. Briefly, soil pH and electrical conductivities (ECs) were determined in a soil-water suspension (ratio of 1:5) using a TPS meter, and soil texture was analyzed by the hydrometer method as described in Okalebo et al.[24]. Total carbon (C), nitrogen (N), Olsen extractable P, and exchangeable ammonium and nitrate and nitrite in both the cattle manure were analyzed as described by Parwada & Van Tol.[12]. Bulk density (ρb) was determined using the core method.

    • Soil water storage was measured gravimetrically (drying method, w/w) to a depth of 120 cm at 20 cm increments before sowing and at planting to emergence, emergence to tassling, tassling to silking, silking to physiological maturity, and dry-down period growth stages of maize. Three random locations in each plot were taken to measure soil water storage. Bulk density (ρb) was determined using the core method and calculated as:

      ρb=MV

      where, ρb is the bulk density (g cm−3), M is the mass of oven-dried soil (g) and V is the volume of soil (cm3).

      Soil water storage (0−120 cm) was calculated using the formula:

      Sw=h×d×b%×10

      where, Sw (mm) is the sum of soil water storages at different soil layers, h (cm) is soil layer depth; d (g cm−3) is soil bulk density in different soil layer and b% is the percentage of soil moisture in weight.

      Dry matter was measured from planting to emergence, emergence to tassling, tassling to silking, silking to physiological maturity and dry-down period growth stages of maize. The maize samples collected at each respective growth stage were dried in an oven at 105 °C for 1 h and then were dried at 75 °C to constant weight. Five maize plants per plot were used (destructively sampled) for each measurement at different growth stages of maize. The dry matter accumulation (DMA) was as follows:

      Drymatteraccumulation=DMW(t)Plotarea(ha)

      where, DMW is dry matter weight.

      Rainfall use efficiency was calculated using the following formula:

      RUE=Y/R

      where, RUE represents the rainfall use efficiency for the biomass yield (kg ha−1 mm−1); Y is the dry matter accumulation of the maize and R is the rainfall.

      Soil samples were collected from the surface layers (0–20 cm) of all plots during off season of maize in September each year. Four soil samples were collected for each treatment replicate, were combined into a composite sample, air-dried, and were sieved before chemical analysis. All chemical parameters were calculated based on the oven-dry (105 °C) weight of the soil. Soil organic matter (SOM) was determined using the dichromate oxidation method, total N by micro-Kjeldahl digestion, total P was determined by the wet oxidation procedure described by Rowland & Grimshaw[25], and total K by extraction with 1N ammonium acetate (NH4OAc) solution at pH 7.046.

    • Collected data were tested for normality and observed to follow a normal distribution and homoscedasticity, and thus, two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) was done to compare soil water storage, rainfall use efficiency, and growth parameters of maize under different cattle manure application rates and tied ridges. All data were analyzed using JMP version 11.0.0 statistical software. The significance of treatment effects was determined using the Duncan test at p ≤ 0.05.

    • Initial soil from the experimental field was classified as sandy loam soil with 78% sand, 18% silt, and 3% clay. The cattle manure contained some soil particles though in small quantities compared to the soil (Table 1). The soil and cattle manure had pH values of 4.2 and 6.98 respectively. The soil had a total of 0.5% nitrogen, 0.7% soil organic carbon, and 55.0 mg kg−1 phosphorous while the cattle manure had higher values of the corresponding parameters (Table 1). The cattle manure had 33.5 times more extractable NO2/NO3 (mg kg−1) than the soil (Table 1). The soil had a bulk density of 1.52 kg cm−3.

    • The study area received a total annual rainfall of 393.6, 350.6, and 369.9 mm in the 2019/20, 2020/21, and 2021/22 cropping seasons, respectively (Fig. 1). The rainfall was not uniformly distributed and rarely exceeded a mean of 25 mm in a pentad. A pentad was defined as having ≥ 25 mm of rain in five days and only two pentads were recorded during the 2019 to 2022 rainy seasons which translated to only 10% frequency of occurrence of 25 mm of rain in a pentad (Fig. 1). Generally, the study area received a below-normal rainfall of ≥ 400 mm per year throughout the study period.

      Figure 1. 

      Rainfall characteristic during 2019/20–2021/22 cropping seasons in the Muzokomba area.

      The rainfall quantity was generally lower at the planting and maize emergence (P-E) and dry-down periods (Dry-P) (Fig. 2). Rainfall received during the emergence to tassling (E-T) was < 100 mm in all three cropping seasons.

      Figure 2. 

      Total rainfall (mm) distribution according to maize growth stages in the years of 2019/20–2021/22. P-E: Planting to Emergence; E-T: Emergence to Tassling; T-SK: Tassling to Silking; SK-PM: Silking to Physiological maturity and Dry-P: Dry-down period.

    • No tied ridges + inorganic fertilizers had significantly (p < 0.05) the lowest soil water storage at all maize growth stages. The no-tied ridges + cattle manure application rates treatment combinations had significantly (p < 0.05) lower soil water storage compared to the tied ridges combined with the respective manure application rates (Table 2). The soil water storage was significantly (p < 0.05) highest at the P-E stages and thereafter showed a gradual decline with the maize growth to Dry-P in all the treatment combinations (Table 2). Tied ridges + > 7.5 t ha−1 cattle manure treatments had significantly the highest soil moisture storage. Soil water storage under NTHM and TLM application rates did not significantly differ in all the maize growth stages in the three seasons (Table 2). In the three-year study, the soil water storage was significantly (p < 0.05) increased by 6% from an average of 286.3 mm in NTHM and TLM treatments to 300 mm in tied ridges + > 7.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rates treatments (Table 2).

      Table 2.  Soil water storage at 0–120 cm soil profile as influenced by manure management.

      YearTreatmentsSoil water storage (mm)
      P-EE-TT-SKSK-PMDry-P
      2020NT0%255.2 ± 5a240.6 ± 4a201.3 ± 5a176.8 ± 6a181.4 ± 7a
      NTLM269.5 ± 8b252.2 ± 3b236.1 ± 3b196.2 ± 4b205.0 ± 2b
      NTSM272.1 ± 6b258.0 ± 5b238.3 ± 6b198.1 ± 5b226.1 ± 2b
      NTHM284.3 ± 7c269.3 ± 7c249.2 ± 8c216.4 ± 7c231.0 ± 6c
      T0%254.2 ± 5a242.2 ± 4a200.2 ± 5a177.8 ± 6a183.4 ± 7a
      TLM288.6 ± 2c270.6 ± 2c246.4 ± 2c220.6 ± 8c233.2 ± 1c
      TSM299.1 ± 4d281.1 ± 4d259.1 ± 4d228.5 ± 1d249.1 ± 4d
      THM299.3 ± 7d293.3 ± 7d261.0 ± 5d230.6 ± 8d250.1 ± 3d
      2021NT0%254.1 ± 5a242.5 ± 4a202.3 ± 4a175.6 ± 6a183.4 ± 6a
      NTLM266.4 ± 6b255.4 ± 6b236.1 ± 3b196.2 ± 4b206.1 ± 5b
      NTSM270.2 ± 4b256.2 ± 4b238.3 ± 6b198.1 ± 5b228.2 ± 7b
      NTHM285.1 ± 3c265.1 ± 3c248.1 ± 5c216.4 ± 7c239.1 ± 6c
      T0%256.2 ± 5a243.5 ± 4a201.3 ± 5a175.7 ± 6a180.4 ± 6a
      TLM286.6 ± 2c288.6 ± 2b246.4 ± 2c221.0 ± 5c241.3 ± 1c
      TSM294.1 ± 4d290.1 ± 4b258.3 ± 7d226.6 ± 3d254.2 ± 4d
      THM302.5 ± 8d302.5 ± 8c260.3 ± 2d233.4 ± 9d258.0 ± 8d
      2022NT0%254.2 ± 4a241.5 ± 4a201.2 ± 4a175.6 ± 5a180.4 ± 7a
      NTLM266.5 ± 8b249.2 ± 2b238.4 ± 6b198.3 ± 1b204.6 ± 1b
      NTSM270.1 ± 6b254.0 ± 1b237.2 ± 8b196.0 ± 3b226.1 ± 6b
      NTHM266.3 ± 7c264.3 ± 5c250.1 ± 6c217.2 ± 8c253.0 ± 5c
      T0%253.2 ± 4a240.6 ± 4a200.3 ± 4a175.8 ± 5a180.4 ± 5a
      TLM285.6 ± 2c265.2 ± 7c247.3 ± 9c219.8 ± 6c255.2 ± 7c
      TSM298.1 ± 4d279.2 ± 3d260.4 ± 6d226.4 ± 2d266.3 ± 4d
      THM301.3 ± 7d283.4 ± 2d265.2 ± 3d231.2 ± 5d267.0 ± 5d
      Values in the same column and same year followed by different letters indicate significant differences (Duncan p < 0.05).
    • There were no significant differences in dry matter accumulation (DMA) at the P-E growth stage in most of the treatment combinations except for the tied ridges + high manure application which recorded high dry matter accumulations in 2022 (Table 3). No tied ridges + 0% cattle manure application rate had significantly (p < 0.05) recorded the lowest dry matter accumulation at subsequent growth stages from the P-E (Table 3). No tied ridges + cattle manure application rates treatments combinations had significantly (p < 0.05) lower dry matter accumulation compared to the tied ridges combined with the respective manure application rates (Table 3). Dry matter accumulation was significantly (p < 0.05) increasing from the E-T stages and was highest (162.1 t ha−1) at the SK-PM in 2022 but started to decline at the Dry-P maize growth stage in all the treatment combinations (Table 3). Generally, the tied ridges + > 7.5 t ha−1 cattle manure treatments recorded significantly (p < 0.05) higher dry matter accumulation from the E-T to Dry-P maize growth stage. The DMA was significantly (p < 0.05) the same in no-tied ridges + high cattle manure and TLM application rates at all maize growth stages in the three seasons. The average DMA from 2020 to 2022 was significantly (p < 0.05) increased by 9% from 23.2 t ha−1 in NTHM to 32.7 t ha−1 in tied ridges + > 7.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rates treatments (Table 3).

      Table 3.  Effect of manure management on dry matter accumulation at different growth stages and grain yield of maize.

      Year Treatments Dry matter accumulation (t ha−1) Grain yield (t ha−1)
      P-E E-T T-SK SK-PM Dry-P
      2020 NT0% 1.1 ± 0.1a 9.0 ± 1.2a 29.5 ± 2.6a 58.6 ± 2.2a 20.1 ± 2.3a 0.2 ± 0.01a
      NTLM 1.2 ± 0.2a 16.4 ± 2.0b 52.8 ± 3.1b 76.4 ± 3.0b 30.6 ± 3.2b 0.4 ± 0.01b
      NTSM 1.2 ± 0.2a 18.7 ± 3.2c 65.6 ± 3.3c 87.4 ± 3.2c 40.8 ± 3.1c 0.6 ± 0.1c
      NTHM 1.3 ± 0.3a 23.5 ± 3.0d 76.3 ± 3.0d 96.2 ± 3.1d 52.4 ± 3.2d 0.8 ± 0.3d
      T0% 1.2 ± 0.1a 8.0 ± 1.1a 28.5 ± 2.5a 56.6 ± 2.1a 20.1 ± 2.2a 0.2 ± 0.01a
      TLM 1.4 ± 0.3a 22.7 ± 3.0d 80.3 ± 2.3d 100.8 ± 3.1d 53.2 ± 2.1d 0.9 ± 0.3d
      TSM 1.4 ± 0.3a 32.3 ± 3.1e 120.4 ± 3.2e 154.6 ± 3.3e 72.6 ± 3.0e 1.2 ± 0.5e
      THM 1.6 ± 0.3a 33.6 ± 3.1e 125.7 ± 3.8e 160.3 ± 3.5e 75.4 ± 3.2e 2.4 ± 0.7e
      2021 NT0% 1.1 ± 0.2a 8.0 ± 1.1a 28.5 ± 2.5a 59.6 ± 2.1a 21.1 ± 2.2a 0.2 ± 0.01a
      NTLM 1.2 ± 0.1a 16.6 ± 2.1b 50.9 ± 3.0b 77.1 ± 3.1b 31.8 ± 3.1b 0.5 ± 0.1b
      NTSM 1.2 ± 0.3a 17.9 ± 3.0c 66.6 ± 3.2c 86.8 ± 3.1c 42.2 ± 3.2c 0.6 ± 0.1c
      NTHM 1.3 ± 0.2a 24.4 ± 3.2d 75.4 ± 3.2d 97.2 ± 3.0d 45.7 ± 3.3d 0.7 ± 0.3d
      T0% 1.2 ± 0.1a 9.0 ± 1.3a 28.5 ± 2.6a 57.5 ± 2.2a 20.1 ± 2.3a 0.3 ± 0.01a
      TLM 1.3 ± 0.2a 23.3 ± 3.1d 78.1 ± 2.1d 103.2 ± 3.2d 35.5 ± 2.0d 1.2 ± 0.5e
      TSM 1.4 ± 0.2a 31.4 ± 3.2e 119.5 ± 3.0e 153.4 ± 3.2e 38.8 ± 3.2e 1.4 ± 0.5e
      THM 1.3 ± 0.2a 32.8 ± 3.0e 124.6 ± 3.5e 158.9 ± 3.3e 37.3 ± 3.1e 2.8 ± 0.7f
      2022 NT0% 1.1 ± 0.1a 9.1 ± 1.2a 28.5 ± 2.6a 57.5 ± 2.2a 20.0 ± 2.1a 0.2 ± 0.01a
      NTLM 1.3 ± 0.3a 15.1 ± 2.2b 52.3 ± 3.2b 77.8 ± 3.1b 32.3 ± 3.1b 0.4 ± 0.1b
      NTSM 1.2 ± 0.2a 19.4 ± 3.1c 66.8 ± 3.2c 88.5 ± 3.5c 41.6 ± 3.0c 0.7 ± 0.1c
      NTHM 1.3 ± 0.1a 24.5 ± 3.1d 78.2 ± 3.1d 97.3 ± 3.0d 45.7 ± 3.1d 0.7 ± 0.3c
      T0% 1.1 ± 0.1a 9.1 ± 1.3a 29.4 ± 2.5a 57.5 ± 2.1a 20.1 ± 2.1a 0.2 ± 0.01a
      TLM 1.9 ± 0.2b 25.2 ± 3.2d 82.4 ± 2.6d 101.5 ± 3.2d 47.6 ± 2.0d 1.3 ± 0.8e
      TSM 2.4 ± 0.2c 31.6 ± 3.2d 121.5 ± 3.1d 155.3 ± 3.2d 48.4 ± 3.1d 2.9 ± 0.8f
      THM 2.6 ± 0.3c 32.7 ± 3.0e 126.0 ± 3.3e 162.1 ± 3.0e 47.3 ± 3.0e 3.2 ± 0.9g
      Values in the same column and same year followed by different letters indicate significant differences (Duncan p < 0.05).

      The DMA significantly (p <0.05) increased by 79.6% from 32.7 t ha−1 at E-T to 162.1 t ha−1 at SK-PM under the THM treatment in 2022 (Table 3). The grain yield was highest (3.2 t ha−1) in tied ridges + 22.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rate in 2022 and lowest (0.2 t ha−1) in no tied ridges + 0% cattle manure (Table 3).

    • The rainfall use efficiency (RUE) was significantly (p < 0.05) highest (1.7 kg ha−1 mm−1) under the THM at the P-E growth stage in the 2022 growing season (Table 4). Like on the dry matter accumulation generally, the no tied ridges + inorganic fertilizers had significantly (p < 0.05) the lowest RUE from the E-T to Dry-P maize growth stage compared to other treatment combinations (Table 4). The no tied ridges + cattle manure application rates treatment combinations had significantly (p < 0.05) lower RUE compared to the tied ridges combined with the respective manure application rates (Table 4). The RUE was significantly (p < 0.05) increasing from the E-T stages and was highest (92.6 kg ha−1 mm−1) at the SK-PM in 2021 under tied ridges + cattle manure treatments. The RUE started to decrease from the SK-PM to Dry-P maize growth stage in all the treatment combinations (Table 4). Generally, the tied ridges + > 7.5 t ha−1 cattle manure treatments showed significant (p < 0.05) increase in RUE from the E-T to Dry-P maize growth stage compared to other treatment combinations. The rainfall use efficiency was significantly (p < 0.05) the same in no tied ridges + high cattle manure and tied ridges + low cattle manure application rates at all the maize growth stages in the three seasons. The RUE was significantly (p < 0.05) increased by 65.8% from 45.0 kg ha−1 mm−1 in no tied ridges + high manure to 72.6 kg ha−1 mm−1 in tied ridges + 22.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rates treatment at S-SK in the 2022 season (Table 4).

      Table 4.  Effect of manure management on rainfall use efficiency at different growth stages of maize.

      Year Treatments Rainfall use efficiency (kg ha−1 mm−1) Grain yield (t ha−1)
      P-E E-T T-SK SK-PM Dry-P
      2020 NT0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 14.9 ± 4.2a 31.6 ± 3.2a 17.4 ± 2.1a 0.56 ± 2.1a
      NTLM 0.8 ± 0.1a 9.2 ± 2.1b 28.5 ± 3.3b 42.4 ± 3.0b 28.2 ± 3.1b 1.17 ± 2.1a
      NTSM 0.8 ± 0.2a 10.1 ± 3.2c 36.4 ± 3.2c 48.1 ± 3.1c 22.7 ± 3.2c 1.75 ± 0.6b
      NTHM 0.9 ± 0.1a 12.3 ± 3.1d 41.2 ± 4.2d 53.4 ± 3.3d 48.0 ± 3.3d 2.33 ± 1.1c
      T0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 15.9 ± 4.2a 32.6 ± 3.2a 18.4 ± 2.1a 0.58 ± 2.1a
      TLM 1.2 ± 0.2a 12.8 ± 3.1d 43.9 ± 4.3d 56.0 ± 3.2d 48.9 ± 3.2d 2.63 ± 1.2c
      TSM 1.2 ± 0.2a 18.2 ± 3.2e 65.1 ± 4.4e 85.9 ± 3.4e 66.5 ± 3.1e 3.51 ± 1.3d
      THM 1.4 ± 0.2a 19.0 ± 3.2e 67.9 ± 4.2e 89.0 ± 3.6f 69.0 ± 3.0e 7.01 ± 1.5f
      2021 NT0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 15.6 ± 4.1a 31.5 ± 3.2a 17.4 ± 2.1a 0.55 ± 2.1a
      NTLM 0.8 ± 0.1a 8.8 ± 2.2b 28.1 ± 3.1b 44.9 ± 3.2b 36.2 ± 3.0b 1.40 ± 0.8a
      NTSM 0.8 ± 0.2a 9.5 ± 3.1c 36.8 ± 3.0c 50.6 ± 3.2c 41.0 ± 3.0c 1.68 ± 0.9b
      NTHM 0.9 ± 0.2a 12.9 ± 3.2d 41.6 ± 4.1d 56.7 ± 3.1d 43.8 ± 3.0d 1.96 ± 0.9b
      T0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 16.2 ± 4.2a 36.2 ± 3.2a 19.3 ± 2.1a 0.59 ± 2.1a
      TLM 0.9 ± 0.1a 12.3 ± 3.2d 43.1 ± 4.1d 60.2 ± 3.1d 43.9 ± 3.0d 3.37 ± 1.2d
      TSM 1.0 ± 0.1a 16.6 ± 3.1e 66.0 ± 4.0e 89.4 ± 3.2f 42.9 ± 3.2e 3.93 ± 1.2d
      THM 0.9 ± 0.1a 17.4 ± 3.2e 68.8 ± 4.1e 92.6 ± 3.2f 42.4 ± 2.9e 7.86 ± 1.6f
      2022 NT0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 14.9 ± 4.2a 33.5 ± 3.2a 17.3 ± 2.1a 0.56 ± 2.1a
      NTLM 0.9 ± 0.1a 9.2 ± 2.1b 30.1 ± 2.9b 41.8 ± 3.2b 33.3 ± 3.0b 1.14 ± 0.7a
      NTSM 0.9 ± 0.2a 11.8 ± 2.1c 38.5 ± 3.1c 47.5 ± 3.0c 43.0 ± 3.1c 1.99 ± 0.9b
      NTHM 0.8 ± 0.1a 15.0 ± 3.1e 45.0 ± 4.0d 52.2 ± 3.2d 46.7 ± 3.2d 1.99 ± 0.9b
      T0% 0.8 ± 0.2a 5.0 ± 1.1a 15.9 ± 4.2a 32.6 ± 3.2a 18.4 ± 2.1a 0.58 ± 2.1a
      TLM 1.3 ± 0.1a 15.3 ± 3.2e 44.2 ± 3.8d 54.5 ± 3.1d 47.2 ± 3.0d 3.70 ± 1.2d
      TSM 1.6 ± 0.2a 19.3 ± 4.2e 70.0 ± 4.2e 83.6 ± 3.5e 49.2 ± 3.0de 8.26 ± 1.2f
      THM 1.7 ± 0.2b 20.0 ± 4.1ef 72.6 ± 4.1e 87.0 ± 3.0e 50.0 ± 2.8e 9.12 ± 1.6g
      Values in the same column and same year followed by different letters indicate significant differences (Duncan p < 0.05).

      The RUE significantly (p <0.05) increased by 335% from 20.0 kg ha−1 mm−1 at E-T to 87.0 kg ha−1 mm−1 at SK-PM and decreased by 42.5% from the SK-PM to 50.0 kg ha−1 mm−1 at the Dry-P growth stage respectively in tied ridges + 22.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rates treatment in 2022 (Table 4). The RUE on the grain yield was generally higher on the tied ridges + cattle manure than on no-tied ridges + cattle manure. The RUE for the overall maize grain yield was significantly (p < 0.05) was lowest (0.58 kg ha−1 mm−1) and highest (9.12 kg ha−1 mm−1) in the tied ridge control and tied ridges + 22.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rates treatment in 2022 respectively (Table 4).

    • Most of the measured soil properties changed due to the addition of the cattle manure except for the sand (%), silt (%), and clay (%) for the entire study period (Table 5). The soil pH was improved from 4.1 in the control to 6.2 in the tied ridges + high cattle manure application rates. Total N (%), extractable NO2/NO3, total C (%), K, and other measured nutrient elements increased significantly as the quantity of the manure applied increased. There was a slight increase in the measured soil parameters in the ≤ 7.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rates treatments compared to the > 7.5 t ha−1 manure application rates treatments (Table 5).

      Table 5.  Soil nutrients and soil organic matter in tied-ridged plots as a function of the different manure treatments during 2020–2022.

      Parameter Control Low manure Medium manure High manure
      2020 2021 2022 2020 2021 2022 2020 2021 2022
      Sand (%) 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1 74 ± 3.1
      Silt (%) 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3 21 ± 2.3
      Clay (%) 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.3
      pH (H2O) 4.1 ± 2.1 4.3 ± 2.0 4.4 ± 2.1 4.3 ± 2.1 5.1 ± 0.3 5.3 ± 2.2 5.8 ± 2.1 6.2 ± 2.2 6.6 ± 2.0 6.6 ± 2.2
      EC(dSm−1) 6.2 ± 0.23 7.2 ± 0.6 7.6 ± 0.7 7.8 ± 0.6 9.1 ± 0.2 9.0 ± 0.3 9.6 ± 0.3 11.2 ± 0.6 15.1 ± 0.7 19.1 ± 0.7
      CEC (cmol(+) kg−1) 4.3 ± 1.4 8.3 ± 1.4 8.2 ± 1.4 8.1 ± 1.3 19.2 ± 1.2 18.8 ± 1.3 21.1 ± 1.2 21.3 ± 1.5 23.1 ± 1.4 28.2 ± 1.5
      Total C (%) 0.4 ± 0.01 0.8 ± 0.02 0.9 ± 0.01 0.8 ± 0.03 1.1 ± 0.3 1.2 ± 0.2 1.4 ± 0.3 1.2 ± 0.8 1.6 ± 0.8 2.2 ± 0.7
      Total N (%) 0.2 ± 0.02 0.5 ± 0.02 0.6 ± 0.02 0.5 ± 0.02 0.6 ± 0.01 0.6 ± 0.02 0.9 ± 0.02 0.9 ± 0.03 1.6 ± 0.3 2.9 ± 0.3
      C:N ratio 0.5 ± 0.01 0.6 ± 0.01 0.7 ± 0.01 0.6 ± 0.01 0.5 ± 0.7 0.5 ± 0.6 0.5 ± 0.7 0.8 ± 0.1 0.8 ± 0.1 0.8 ± 0.1
      Olsen extractable P
      (mg kg−1)
      55.0 ± 5.2 60.0 ± 5.3 59.0 ± 5.0 60.0 ± 5.3 82.4 ± 8.8 81.0 ± 9.2 87.0 ± 9.2 56.0 ± 5.2 60.0 ± 5.2 65.0 ± 5.2
      Extractable NO2/NO3
      (mg kg−1)
      25.1 ± 2.0 122.1 ± 2.0 123.1 ± 2.2 122.1 ± 2.2 250.5 ± 6.7 251.0 ± 7.0 258.3 ± 6.0 258.1 ± 7.0 265.1 ± 6.1 273.1 ± 7.1
      Extractable NH4
      (mg kg−1)
      96.2 ± 0.5 109.1 ± 0.9 108.0 ± 0.9 109.2 ± 0.8 376.2 ± 2.7 377.3 ± 2.8 381.2 ± 2.6 397.5 ± 0.6 418.2 ± 0.7 438.2 ± 0.8
      K (mg kg−1) 6.4 ± 0.4 4.5 ± 0.7 4.3 ± 0.6 3.9 ± 0.6 4.8 ± 0.4 4.6 ± 0.5 5.3 ± 0.7 3.6 ± 0.3 6.2 ± 0.4 10.1 ± 0.5
      Ca (cmol(+) kg−1) 0.3 ± 0.03 27 ± 4.1 26.9 ± 4.2 27.0 ± 4.1 30.3 ± 2.4 31.2 ± 2.4 39.2 ± 2.5 41.0 ± 4.4 42.2 ± 4.1 45.2 ± 3.5
      Mg (cmol(+) kg−1) 20.6 ± 1.2 11.3 ± 1.4 11.3 ± 1.3 10.9 ± 1.8 10.6 ± 2.0 10.1 ± 1.6 11.5 ± 1.6 9.5 ± 1.1 8.0 ± 1.0 13.2 ± 1.4
      Na (cmol(+) kg−1) 0.3 ± 0.01 2.4 ± 0.02 2.5 ± 0.01 2.5 ± 0.02 3.6 ± 0.7 3.7 ± 0.8 4.0 ± 0.9 3.9 ± 0.6 4.1 ± 0.3 5.1 ± 0.4
      Cu (cmol(+) kg−1) 111 ± 9.8 201 ± 25.8 204. ± 25.8 202 ± 25.8 315 ± 38.6 312 ± 20.1 328 ± 20.2 351 ± 22.6 356 ± 22.7 360 ± 25.6
      Zn (cmol(+) kg−1) 64.1 ± 5.5 330.6 ± 2.9 331.6 ± 4.1 332.3 ± 3.1 416.9 ± 0.8 415.6 ± 0.9 417.7 ± 0.8 432.6 ± 5.3 433.6 ± 5.4 438.2 ± 5.2
      Bulk density (kg cm−3) 1.53 ± 0.8 1.48 ± 0.6 1.46 ± 0.6 1.42 ± 0.6 1.45 ± 0.7 1.32 ± 0.6 1.28 ± 0.8 1.32 ± 0.6 1.10 ± 0.6 0.80 ± 0.4
      EC, electrical conductivity; CEC, cation exchange capacity. Data are means ± standard error of the means for three replicates.

      The results showed the cumulative effects of applying of high quantity (22.5 t ha−1) of cattle manure for three consecutive years. The highest values of measured soil parameters were observed in the third year (2022) in the 22.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rate treatment (Table 5). The bulk density decreased by 47.71% from 1.52 kg cm−3 in the control to 0.80 kg cm−3 in the tied ridges + 22.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rate in 2022.

    • No tied ridges + inorganic fertilizers and no tied ridges + cattle manure at all the application rates (7.5 t ha−1, 15 t ha−1, and 22.5 t ha−1) had significantly (p < 0.05) lower soil water storage at the five maize growth stages compared to tied ridges combined with the respective manure application rates (Table 2). Sandy soils are characterized by few and large pores[12] hence the low soil water storage recorded in no tied + inorganic fertilizer could be a result of relatively large pores of the sand soil causing rainwater to drain freely. Therefore, the observed low soil water content was observed at all the maize growth stages (Table 2). However, the combined effects of the tied ridges + cattle manure were positive on the soil water storage as the tied ridging was effective in minimizing runoff and promoting water infiltration. The cattle manure promoted the formation of soil aggregates reducing the free drainage of rain water. This counts to the general increase of soil water storage in the tied ridges + cattle manure treatments. The reduction of soil water storage with an increase in maize growth could be due to the differences in water demand and utilization at the specific growth stage. The soil water storage was highest at the planting to emergence (P-E) as there was rainfall (Table 2) with low water use and demand as the crop needed adequate moisture only for germination. The crop water demand increased as the crop reached the Emergence and Tassling (E-T) to Tassling to Silking (SK-PM) stages. These stages are characterized by high water requirements as there is rapid biomass accumulation and reproduction[8] resulting in reduced soil water content (Table 2). During the vegetative stage, the maize plants develop larger leaf surfaces increasing the demand for water and approaching maximum water use when the canopy has fully grown (40-60 d after planting (AP))[15]. The maize plant reaches peak water demand and becomes highly sensitive to moisture shortage during the flowering and early grain fill stage (60-95 d AP). The addition of cattle manure alters the soil water retention properties[26]. It was agreed that the growth and performance of crops are dependent on the soil properties, especially, soil water retention e.g. water status[11]. Under the tied ridges treatments, the soil water content was directly proportional to the quantity of cattle manure applied so that the more (> 7.5 t ha−1) the manure the more the soil water content (Table 2). These results agree with Mudatenguha et al.[5] who also showed an increase in magnetic effects of water particles as the cattle manure application rates were increased above 7.5 t ha−1 in sandy-loam soils.

    • The dry matter (DM) accumulation was increased from the P-E stage and peaked at the SK-PM stage before declining at the Dry-P. Generally, the grain yield was proportionally increasing with an increase in the total dry matter accumulated (P-E to Dry-P) in all the treatments (Table 3). Dry matter (DM) accumulation and its allocation to kernels are key factors that influence the final maize grain yield. Grain yield is influenced by the efficiency of many physiological processes that occur from plant germination to the maturity stage. Hybrids with short ripening periods accumulate half of all dry matter until silking and nearly the same amount until grain filling[4].

      Therefore, water deficit at the flowering stage will negatively affect fertilization, and grain filling causing a low yield of maize[8]. Shumba et al.[27] noted that if soil moisture during the reproductive stage remains at the wilting point for 1−2 d or 6−8 d, the grain yield was reduced by 20% and > 50%, respectively. However, Eleduma et al.[10] observed that maize is generally tolerant to water shortage during two distinct growth phases which are at the early vegetative (until 40 d AP) and late grain fill and ripening stage (after 110 d AP). In this study, results (Table 4) showed the cumulative effects of moisture stress at subsequent maize growth stages on the final grain yield suggesting that if maize is affected by drought conditions at any growth stage from planting, the grain yield was significantly reduced.

      The growing factors should be favorable for high dry matter accumulation which will be allocated to the kernels at the grain filling stage. Tied ridges + > 7.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rates were shown to conserve soil moisture and supply plant nutrients that influenced higher DM accumulation compared to other treatments in all three seasons. The continuous (2020 to 2022 seasons) application of high quantities (22.5 t ha−1) of manure under the tied ridges has significantly modified the soil hydro-properties and the soil nutrient status resulting in the highest (3.2 t ha−1) grain yield by 2022. The observed differences in DM accumulation and grain yield under the tied ridges + 22.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rate between the prior 2022 season and the 2022 seasons could be due to the cumulative effects of the treatment on the maize growth and yield. This could be explained by the observed increase in the grain yield with an increase in dry matter accumulation during the growth stages of the maize. These results agree with Kubiku et al.[2] who observed that the grain yield of maize was closely correlated to the seasonal dry matter accumulation. Traore et al.[16] observed double as much sorghum grain yield under residual tied-ridge treatment than in the no-tied ridged plots in drier farming areas. This confirms that the in situ water harvesting techniques are effective in soil moisture conservation in semi-arid areas.

    • The RUE factor is the quotient of annual primary production by annual rainfall, i.e. the number of kg aerial dry matter phytomass produced over 1 ha year−1 mm−1 of total rain received. All other conditions remaining equal, RUE was observed to decrease with an increase in drought conditions. Muchai et al.[18], gave some explanation on how water shortage may improve WUE and they showed that drought occurrence early in the crop growth cycle and partially closes the stomata which results in the conservation of soil water and a subsequent improved crop yield per unit of water.

      In this study, no-tied ridges + cattle manure treatments recorded significantly (p < 0.05) lower soil moisture content and RUE than the tied ridges + cattle manure application rates (Tables 2, 4). This suggests that the addition of manure alone in the studied soils could not positively influence the soil water content and hence resulted in reduced dry matter accumulation. The drier conditions in the control and the no-tied ridges + cattle manure treatments resulted in low seasonal primary production by the annual rainfall received during the study period. In this study, there was an increase of RUE of maize by 4.8%, 17.2%, and 38.9% respectively for the application rate of 7.5, 15, and 22.5 t ha−1 cattle manure under tied ridges respectively in 2022 at the SK-PM stage (Table 4). The results are similar to Eleduma et al.[10] who noted an increase in water use efficiency of winter wheat by 5.1%, 13.8%, and 29.3% respectively for 60, 120, and 180 kg N ha−1 in sandy soils respectively. The results showed the cumulative effects of applying manure on the measured parameters. The soil nutrients and soil organic matter in tied-ridged plots as a function of the different manure treatments were highest in the 2022 growing season, corresponding to the season with the highest grain yield recorded (Tables 4 & 5). This indicates that continuous application of manure in the studied soils could improve the physicochemical, soil hydro-properties, and the resultant maize grain yield.

    • Lower than 22.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rates alone did not significantly (p > 0.05) improve the soil water storage, DM accumulation, and RUE under semi-arid conditions. The soil water storage, DM accumulation, and RUE were significantly (P < 0.05) improved under the tied + > 7.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rates. These results also proved that it is possible to obtain ≥ 3 t ha−1 of maize grain yield in the semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe if tied ridges are combined with 22.5 t ha−1 cattle manure. The combined tied ridges and cattle manure modified the soil properties which increased maize grain yield. In this study, the addition of cattle manure enhanced the soil health by building up the soil's organic carbon content. Farmers in the semi-arid areas may, therefore, apply tied ridges + > 7.5 t ha−1 cattle manure application rates for improved maize production. However, it is important to repeat the study in multi-sites to further understand the effects of cattle manure combined with tied ridges on maize production in drier farming regions of Zimbabwe.

    • The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: study conception and design: Parwada C, Makuvaro V, Bandason W, Chipomho J; data collection: Makore F, Parwada C, Bandason W; analysis and interpretation of results: Parwada C, Chipomho J, Makuvaro V; draft manuscript preparation: Parwada C, Chipomho J, Makuvaro V, Makore F. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

    • Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

    • The research did not receive any specific funding, but was performed as part of employment at the Midlands State University, Zimbabwe and Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Zimbabwe. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Mr. Takaendesa Muzokomba for the resources to carry this study at his field.

      • The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

      • Copyright: © 2024 by the author(s). Published by Maximum Academic Press, Fayetteville, GA. This article is an open access article distributed under Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
    Figure (2)  Table (5) References (27)
  • About this article
    Cite this article
    Parwada C, Makore F, Chipomho J, Makuvaro V, Bandason W. 2024. Effects of tied ridges and different cattle manure application rates on soil moisture and rainfall use efficiency on maize growth and yield in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe. Technology in Agronomy 4: e021 doi: 10.48130/tia-0024-0018
    Parwada C, Makore F, Chipomho J, Makuvaro V, Bandason W. 2024. Effects of tied ridges and different cattle manure application rates on soil moisture and rainfall use efficiency on maize growth and yield in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe. Technology in Agronomy 4: e021 doi: 10.48130/tia-0024-0018

Catalog

  • About this article

/

DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
Return
Return