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2024 Volume 4
Article Contents
Abstract
Introduction
Perennial grasses as natural allies of soil health
Perennial grasses as natural allies of soil biodiversity
Perennial grasses in climate change mitigation
Perennial grasses in combating invasive plants
Conclusions
Author contributions
Data availability
Acknowledgments
Conflict of interest
Rights and permissions
References
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ARTICLE   Open Access    

Cases of near misses in chemical laboratories of universities and their countermeasures

  • Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, 1-3 Kagurazaka, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8601, Japan

More Information
  • In this study, interviews with undergraduate and graduate students about incidents that did not result in an accident but felt dangerous (so-called near miss incidents) that occurred in the chemical laboratory at the university (to which the author belongs) in 2023 were conducted. An explanation of near-miss cases and the causes attributed to the experimenter is provided. Specifically, potential dangers related to (1) contact with hazardous chemicals, (2) handling of glassware, and (3) working spaces and electricity frequently occur. Comparing undergraduate and graduate students, it was found that the former tended to think about concrete and individual countermeasures, while the latter tended to discuss causes and countermeasures from a broader perspective; therefore, they were differentiated based on the description column. Comments from the graduate students were categorized into corresponding case categories and recorded in a discussion column. Furthermore, a summary section is included on who should be careful, their outlook, and their mindset.

  • Introduction

    Perennial grasses [e.g., switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), Maasai love grass (Eragrostis superba), and bush ryegrass (Enteropogon macrostachyus)] are plant species that live for more than two years with deep root systems and the capacity to grow in a variety of climates[1−5]. Although often overlooked, perennial grasses serve an important role in ecosystems, particularly in maintaining soil health and biodiversity, climate change mitigation, and combating alien invasive plants (AIPs)[1,4]. Thus, they are simply natural allies for soil biodiversity conservation, invasive plant management, and climate change mitigation[6,7]. The deep root systems of perennial grasses help soil structure by improving aeration, increasing water infiltration, and lowering soil erosion[1,5]. Also, their extensive root network supports the stability of the soil, making it less susceptible to degradation and encouraging a healthier ecology overall[1,8]. Further, they play a key role in the nutrient cycle by maximizing nutrient utilization and minimizing leaching[9,10]. In addition, perennial grasses contribute organic matter to the soil through biomass, which decomposes over time and enriches the soil with critical nutrients[11−13]. This process improves soil fertility, increasing productivity for other plant species, and agricultural activities[9,12].

    IAPs, also known as non–native or exotic species, are plants introduced to an ecosystem where they do not naturally occur[14−16] and pose a severe ecological, economic, and social impacts[17,18]. Unlike native species, IAPs often lack natural enemies and diseases in their new environments, allowing them to proliferate unrestrictedly[19,20]. Their invasions lead to the displacement of native flora as they outcompete native species for resources i.e., light, water, and nutrients[21,22]. As a result, causing a reduction in biodiversity and the alteration of ecosystem functions, often forming dense monocultures that hinder the growth of other plants and disrupt habitats for native wildlife[23,24]. Moreover, IAPs can alter soil chemistry and hydrology thereby negatively impacting soil biodiversity[6,7,15,25]. IAPs can further impact human health by increasing allergens and providing a habitat for disease vectors[15]. Efforts to manage IAPs typically involve early detection, prevention, and rapid response, such as biological control, mechanical removal, and herbicide treatment[19,25,26]. Although the role of perennial grasses in combating IAPs has been seldom investigated, available studies show that effective management requires integrated eco-friendly management incorporating competitive native perennial grasses to suppress IAPs[6,8,15,27].

    Furthermore, perennial grasses are ecologically significant because they enhance species diversity and soil biodiversity i.e., living forms found in soil, which includes microorganisms (bacteria and fungi), mesofauna (nematodes and mites), and macrofauna, i.e., earthworms and insects[28−32]. This diversity is critical to ecosystem function and plays an important role in nutrient cycling, soil structure maintenance, and plant growth promotion[29,30]. They contribute to nutrient-cycling activities by breaking down organic materials into simpler compounds that perennial grasses and other plants can consume, decomposing dead plants and animals, and releasing nutrients back into the soil, thus increasing soil fertility[32−34]. Further, perennial grasses also promote plant-soil symbiotic relationships such as mycorrhizal associations and rhizobium symbioses, which improves soil health and plant growth[29]. These benefits are enhanced by perennial grasses' root exudates, which support both soil microbial diversity and activity, resulting in a more dynamic and resilient soil environment[1]. However, extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts, as well as IAPs can cause soil organism loss and structural damage, thereby impeding the roles of soil organisms[35−37]. Further, increased temperatures can disrupt microbial activity and nitrogen cycling mechanisms, impacting soil health, and productivity[37,38]. Addressing these challenges needs long-term integrated management approaches that maintain natural ecosystems and increase soil biodiversity, as well as IAP control and climate change mitigation. For instance, promoting the use and maintaining the diversity of perennial grasses in rangelands and agricultural habitats[1,39,40].

    Climate change which is the average change in the earth's temperature and precipitation patterns can also disrupt the delicate balance of soil biodiversity[37,41]. It is driven primarily by human activities i.e., burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes which lead to an unprecedented rise in greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere[37,42]. Often the earth's surface temperature increases concomitantly with these greenhouse gasses[41]. Increased temperatures contribute to sea-level rise, more frequent and intense heatwaves, wildfires, and droughts affecting biodiversity, water supply, and human health. Changes in precipitation patterns also lead to extreme weather events i.e., hurricanes, floods, and heavy rainfall, disrupting ecosystems and human societies[37]. It also negatively impacts biodiversity, as species must adapt, migrate, or face extinction due to altered habitats and shifting climate zones[36]. Addressing climate change requires global cooperation and robust policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions which include the use of eco-friendly approach, for instance, keeping the environment intact with native plants i.e., perennials grasses[43]. Perennial grasses (e.g., turfgrass) are considered potential for mitigating the effects of climate change because they have a high carbon sequestration capacity, storing carbon in both soil and aboveground biomass[44−46]. They can contribute to reducing greenhouse gas levels by absorbing and storing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in their roots and tissues, thus helping to mitigate climate change[44]. Furthermore, their capacity to minimize greenhouse gas emissions through reduced tillage and increased nitrogen use efficiency makes them an important component of habitat restoration to mitigate climate change impacts[43].

    Consequently, native perennial grasses have been recommended by various previous studies to be used for habitat restoration, including rangelands, because of their physiological and morphological traits, which have shown great potential to improve soil health and biodiversity, mitigate climate change, and combat IAPs[1,5,8,27,40,47]. By their competitive and morphological traits, several perennial native grass species found in African rangelands (e.g., African foxtail grass (Cenchrus ciliaris), horsetail grass (Chloris roxburghiana), rhodes grass (Chloris gayana), E. superba, and E. macrostachyus) and P. virgatum, S. nutans, S. scoparium, and A. gerardii in North America have been tested and recommended for ecological restoration[1−5].

    Perennial grasses as natural allies of soil health

    Preceding studies have demonstrated that perennial grasses have the potential to improve soil health and structure in rangelands and protected habitats[1,48−50]. Unlike annual plants, which have shallow root systems, perennial grasses can penetrate deep into the soil, sometimes reaching depths of several meters as they have deep and extensive root systems[1,7,40]. These deep roots create channels that enhance soil aeration, allowing for better oxygen flow and water infiltration, thereby preventing soil compaction[49]. Perennial grasses contribute to soil stability by binding soil particles together, thereby preventing erosion (Fig. 1), which is important in ecosystems or habitats prone to heavy rainfall or wind[48,49]. This stabilization effect reduces the loss of topsoil, which contains the highest concentration of organic matter and nutrients essential for plant growth[44]. Moreover, perennial grasses have been reported to be efficient in nutrient cycling, a critical process for maintaining soil fertility[49]. For instance, their deep roots access nutrients in deeper soil layers, which might be unavailable to shallow-rooted plants[49,50]. These nutrients are then brought to the surface and incorporated into the plant biomass. When the grasses die back or shed leaves, these nutrients are returned to the soil surface as organic matter, making them accessible to other plants[32,49,51]

    Figure 1.  Diagram illustrating the multifaceted benefits of perennial grasses and their interconnected roles in promoting soil health, biodiversity, IAPs control, climate change mitigation, water retention, erosion control, and habitat provision. The arrows illustrate the complex interactions and synergies among these components, emphasizing the comprehensive ecological contributions of perennial grasses. The central position of perennial grasses highlights their pivotal role in these areas. This visual representation emphasizes how perennial grasses contribute to and enhance various aspects of ecosystem health and stability.
    DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

    Furthermore, perennial grasses enhance soil health and structure (Fig. 1), improving the soil's ability to retain water and withstand extreme weather events i.e., heavy rainfall and floods[44,49]. Their extensive root networks stabilize the soil, reducing erosion and runoff (Fig. 1), which are critical for maintaining soil fertility and agricultural productivity under variable climatic conditions[51]. The continuous growth and decay cycle of perennial grasses contributes to the slow but steady release of nutrients[52]. This slow release is beneficial for maintaining a stable nutrient supply, as opposed to the rapid nutrient depletion often seen in soils dominated by annual crops[50]. This process also helps in reducing nutrient leaching, where nutrients are washed away from the soil profile, particularly nitrogen, which is critical for plant growth[49]. Perennial grasses help to reduce N2O emissions; excess nutrients can lead to increased N2O emissions[10,11,53]. They also contribute significantly to the soil organic matter, which is a key component of soil health[52]. Organic matter consists of decomposed plant and animal residues, which improve soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability[50,52]. The biomass produced by perennial grasses, both above and below ground, adds a substantial amount of organic material to the soil[52]. As the plant material decomposes, it forms humus, a stable form of organic matter that enhances soil structure by increasing its capacity to hold water and nutrients[52,54]. This is particularly important in dry regions e.g. in Africa, where water retention can be a limiting factor for crop growth[49]. The organic matter also provides a habitat and food source for a diverse array of soil organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and earthworms, which further contribute to soil fertility through their biological activities[43,52,54].

    Perennial grasses as natural allies of soil biodiversity

    Perennial grasses play a crucial role in enhancing soil biodiversity (abundance and diversity) and activities within the soil[31,32,51,54]. They provide critical habitats for soil fauna i.e., earthworms, nematodes, and arthropods (Fig. 1)[32,54]. Their complex root systems create a stable environment that supports a wide range of soil organisms[55]. Also, the root systems of perennial grasses exude a variety of organic compounds, including sugars, amino acids, and organic acids, which serve as food sources for soil biodiversity[54]. This continuous supply of root exudates and a stable environment fosters a diverse macro and microbial community, which is essential for maintaining soil health[31,43,54]. For instance, it was reported by Smith et al.[54] that in areas with abundant perennial grasses, a high soil macrofaunal biodiversity (i.e., Lumbricidae, Isopoda, and Staphylinidae) was observed. They further asserted that these grasses were beneficial to soil macrofauna as they increased the abundance and species diversity of staphylinid beetles, woodlice, and earthworms. In addition, Mathieu et al.[56] reported the influence of spatial patterns of perennial grasses on the abundance and diversity of soil macrofauna in Amazonian pastures. These findings suggest that well-managed perennial grasses are vital in enhancing soil macro and microbes in ecosystems[54−56].

    These soil organisms perform various functions, including decomposing organic matter, fixing atmospheric nitrogen, and suppressing soil-borne diseases[29,30,32]. A diverse soil macro and microbial community can enhance nutrient cycling, making nutrients more available to plants[30,56]. Enhanced microbial diversity by perennial grasses contributes to the suppression of pathogens through competition and the production of antimicrobial compounds, thus promoting plant health[32]. They also help in maintaining soil structure, fertility, and overall ecosystem function[32]. For instance, earthworms, often referred to as 'ecosystem engineers', augment soil structure by creating burrows that improve aeration and water infiltration in perennial grass communities[31,51]. Their activity also helps mix organic matter into the soil, promoting nutrient cycling[31,32]. Nematodes and arthropods which feed on perennial grass species contribute to the decomposition process, breaking down organic matter and releasing nutrients that are vital for plant growth[31,54]. The presence of a diverse soil fauna community is indicative of a healthy soil ecosystem, which is more resilient to environmental stresses and disturbances[31].

    Furthermore, perennial grasses are considered as being instrumental in promoting plant-soil symbiotic relationships[43,54], which are crucial for plant health and soil fertility. One of the most well-known symbiotic relationships is between plants and mycorrhizal fungi[29,33]. These fungi colonize plant roots and extend their hyphae into the soil, increasing the root surface area and enhancing the plant's ability to absorb water and nutrients, particularly phosphorus. The relationship between perennial grasses and mycorrhizal fungi is mutually beneficial. The fungi receive carbohydrates produced by the plant through photosynthesis, while the plant gains improved access to soil nutrients and increased resistance to soil-borne pathogens[30]. This symbiotic relationship is particularly important in nutrient-poor soils, where mycorrhizal associations can significantly enhance plant growth and survival. Additionally, perennial grasses promote other beneficial plant-soil interactions, such as those involving nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria form nodules on the roots of certain perennial grasses, converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use[29,30]. This process is essential for maintaining soil fertility, especially in ecosystems where nitrogen is a limiting nutrient.

    Perennial grasses in climate change mitigation

    Perennial grasses are increasingly recognized for their role in climate change mitigation (Fig. 1)[43,44,57]. They can sequester carbon, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and adaptation to climate variability[58,59]. Their deep root systems and grass-like characteristics make them highly effective in capturing and storing carbon[44]. These roots can penetrate deep into the soil and store carbon for extended periods[59]. Because of this, perennial grasses show potential to enhance the resilience of ecosystems to changing climatic conditions[44]. The roots of perennial grasses are more extensive and persistent compared to annual crops, allowing for greater carbon storage both in the root biomass and the soil[45,46,60]. This process of carbon sequestration involves capturing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) through photosynthesis and storing it in perennial grass tissues (e.g., turfgrasses) and soil organic matter[44−46]. Preceding studies have further shown that perennial grasses can sequester substantial amounts of carbon, contributing to the reduction of atmospheric CO2 levels[45,61]. In addition to carbon sequestration, perennial grasses can reduce greenhouse gas emissions through various mechanisms[43]. One of the primary ways is by reducing the need for frequent soil tillage, which is common in annual cropping systems. Tillage disrupts soil structure, releases stored carbon as CO2, and increases soil erosion[58,61]. Thus, with their long lifespan, perennial grasses can reduce the need for tillage, thereby minimizing CO2 emissions from soil disturbance[43,58].

    Moreover, perennial grasses can improve nitrogen use efficiency, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers that are a major source of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions—a potent greenhouse gas[53,62]. Their deep root systems enable them to access nutrients from deeper soil layers, reducing nutrient leaching and the subsequent emissions of N2O[53]. By optimizing nutrient use, perennial grasses contribute to lower greenhouse gas emissions associated with agricultural practices[63]. Also, perennial grasses are crucial for adapting to climate variability[44]. Their deep root systems allow them to access water from deeper soil layers, making them more resilient to drought conditions compared to annual crops[44]. This water use efficiency helps maintain plant growth and productivity even during periods of water scarcity, which are expected to become more frequent with climate change[49]. In general, perennial grasses support soil biodiversity conservation through habitat provision, climate change mitigation, and promoting ecosystem resilience[58]. Besides, these grasses are crucial for ecosystem stability and productivity, particularly in the face of climate change, and ensure the continued provision of ecosystem services (Fig. 1).

    Perennial grasses in combating invasive plants

    Previous studies have shown that IAPs pose significant threats to ecosystems worldwide by displacing native species, altering habitats, and disrupting ecosystem functions and services[15,20,23,64]. Among the integrated management techniques to combat IAPs involves the use of competitive native plants (Fig. 1) such as perennial grasses[6,7,40]. These grasses, which live for more than two years with robust root systems, growth, and resilience to varying environmental conditions, offer several advantages in controlling IAPs[1,48]. Their competitive growth patterns and ability to restore and maintain native plant communities, and establish, and thrive in diverse habitats make them formidable competitors against invasive plants[1]. One of the primary ways perennial grasses combat IAPs is through competition for resources[48]. Their extensive root systems allow them to efficiently absorb water and nutrients, outcompeting IAPs that typically have shallower roots. This competitive edge limits the resources available to IAPs, inhibiting their growth and spread. For instance, species like P. virgatum and big A. gerardii are known for their deep roots, which can reach depths of up to 10 feet (3 m), providing them with a significant advantage over many IAPs[8,48]. They can also outcompete IAPs through their competitive growth patterns including quick establishment and forming dense canopies that shade out AIPs[1,8]. For example, native perennial grasses like S. nutans and S. scoparium have been shown to effectively compete with invasive species i.e., spotted knapweed (Centaurea stoebe) by limiting light availability and space for growth[8,48].

    Moreover, using their extensive root systems that stabilize the soil, perennial grasses can prevent erosion and invasions of IAPs[44]. Invasive plants i.e., carrot weed (Parthenium hysterophorus), cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), and kudzu (Pueraria montana) can rapidly colonize disturbed soils, leading to severe erosion problems[20,65,66]. However, perennial grasses i.e., P. virgatum and big A. gerardii have been found to reduce erosion and creating an unfavorable environment for IAPs to establish owing to their deep fibrous root systems that hold the soil in place. Perennial grasses can also modify the microenvironment in ways that make it less conducive for IAPs[1,27,66]. They produce dense root mats that strengthen the organic matter content and soil structure, improving the fertility and health of the soil. The diversity and growth of native plant species is aided by improved soil conditions, which further promote biodiversity and inhibit IAPs by strengthening ecosystem resilience[48].

    Additionally, the use of perennial grasses in restoration has shown promising results in reclaiming areas overrun by IAPs and maintaining native plant communities that are disrupted by IAPs[8,66]. By planting a mix of native perennial grasses, land managers can restore ecological balance and prevent the re-establishment of IAPs[26]. These grasses provide long-term ground cover and habitat for wildlife, contributing to the overall health and stability of the ecosystem[1,8,54]. By reintroducing native perennial grasses into areas (e.g., rangelands and protected habitats) dominated by IAPs, ecosystems, and their biodiversity can be restored to their earlier conditions[27,39,67]. For instance, the use of native perennial grasses has been successful in restoring prairie ecosystems that were previously overrun by IAPs i.e., leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula) and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria)[68]. Another important example of using perennial grasses to mitigate IAPs is the restoration of tallgrass prairies in the Midwest United States[8,66]. These prairies were historically dominated by native perennial grasses i.e., S. nutans and S. scoparium, however IAPs i.e., smooth brome (Bromus inermis) and reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) displaced them, leading to biodiversity loss and altered ecosystem functions[8,66,68]. Studies show that following the restoration of these invaded habitats using perennial grasses, native grasses successfully reestablished and reduced IAPs and promoting native biodiversity[66,67]. In addition, another notable example is the use of perennial grasses to restore riparian areas which were heavily invaded and impacted by IAPs i.e., giant reed (Arundo donax) and saltcedar (Tamarix spp.)[67,69]. Planting native perennial grasses like western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii) and creeping wildrye (Elymus triticoides) in these areas helped to stabilize the soil, reduce erosion, and suppress IAPs, leading to improved riparian habitat quality and ecosystem resilience[18,66,67,69].

    Therefore, competitive suppressive perennial grasses are a crucial tool in the fight against IAPs and other weeds. Their competitive abilities, contributions to soil health, and role in ecosystem restoration makes them invaluable in managing and alleviating the impacts of IAPs. As research continues, the potential for perennial grasses to be integrated into broader IAP strategies remain significant, promising a more sustainable and ecologically sound approach to preserving native biodiversity.

    Conclusions

    Perennial grasses are pivotal in enhancing soil biodiversity, mitigating climate change, and combating IAPs. Their deep root systems stabilize soils, support diverse soil faunal communities, and improve water retention. Besides, they are important grasses in sequestering carbon, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, suppressing IAPs, and supporting the reestablishment of native plant communities. Integrating perennial grasses into protected areas and rangelands management practices could offer a sustainable solution to pressing environmental challenges including invasions of IAPs. Stakeholders i.e., farmers, conservationists, ecologists, and land managers are advised to use perennial grass systems in their restoration practices, crop rotations, and pasturelands to enhance soil health and resilience. They are further commended to use perennial grasses for erosion control and to improve soil structure and fertility. Policymakers could develop and support policies that incentivize the use of perennial grasses in agricultural and restoration projects. Researchers, they are advised to conduct studies to quantify the long-term benefits of perennial grasses on soil biodiversity and climate change mitigation. Additionally, they can develop country or region-specific guidelines for the effective use of perennial grasses in different ecosystems. Hence, by integrating perennial grasses into our environmental stewardship strategies, we can ensure a thriving, balanced ecosystem capable of withstanding the impacts of climate change and IAPs.

    Author contributions

    The author confirms sole responsibility for the following: review conception and design, and manuscript preparation.

    Data availability

    Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

    Acknowledgments

    The author thanks all the colleagues who reviewed and proofread this article. This work was not supported by any funding agency.

  • The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

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  • Cite this article

    Akitsu T, Nakane D. 2024. Cases of near misses in chemical laboratories of universities and their countermeasures. Emergency Management Science and Technology 4: e019 doi: 10.48130/emst-0024-0019
    Akitsu T, Nakane D. 2024. Cases of near misses in chemical laboratories of universities and their countermeasures. Emergency Management Science and Technology 4: e019 doi: 10.48130/emst-0024-0019
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ARTICLE   Open Access    

Cases of near misses in chemical laboratories of universities and their countermeasures

  • Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, 1-3 Kagurazaka, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8601, Japan

  • Received: 28 June 2024
  • Revised: 27 August 2024
  • Accepted: 13 September 2024
  • Published online: 10 October 2024
Emergency Management Science and Technology  4,  Article number: e019  (2024)  |  Cite this article

Abstract: In this study, interviews with undergraduate and graduate students about incidents that did not result in an accident but felt dangerous (so-called near miss incidents) that occurred in the chemical laboratory at the university (to which the author belongs) in 2023 were conducted. An explanation of near-miss cases and the causes attributed to the experimenter is provided. Specifically, potential dangers related to (1) contact with hazardous chemicals, (2) handling of glassware, and (3) working spaces and electricity frequently occur. Comparing undergraduate and graduate students, it was found that the former tended to think about concrete and individual countermeasures, while the latter tended to discuss causes and countermeasures from a broader perspective; therefore, they were differentiated based on the description column. Comments from the graduate students were categorized into corresponding case categories and recorded in a discussion column. Furthermore, a summary section is included on who should be careful, their outlook, and their mindset.

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    Introduction

    • A near miss is an unexpected, dangerous, or problematic situation that suddenly occurs during daily work or activities in (inorganic) chemistry laboratories in universities. Various factors, including carelessness and ignorance, cause these problems. Accidents and other problems can occur if workers ignore procedures or do not receive proper training and instructions during work. Faulty equipment can also cause near misses, and unexpected problems can occur because of poor maintenance or aging equipment. In addition, deficiencies in work processes and procedures can cause near misses. Lack of appropriate confirmation procedures or excessive worker workloads can increase the risk of accidents and problems[1,2].

      Several measures are necessary to prevent near misses. First, it is important to provide sufficient training and education to employees. Employees trained in proper work procedures and safety regulations can reduce near misses[3]. Additionally, they must enhance their work environments and minimize risks by conducting routine safety inspections and proactively identifying and fixing equipment and system issues. Moreover, increasing employee safety awareness and ensuring the entire team is alert to danger is important. Near misses can cause unexpected problems; however, taking appropriate countermeasures and precautions can minimize accidents and trouble.

      The causes of near misses are (1) lack of preparation, (2) physical and mental fatigue, (3) lack of organization of the experimental environment, and (4) inadequate management during normal times[4].

      (1) Regarding the lack of preparation, it is necessary to check the MSDS in advance to determine what kind of reaction will occur when using the reagent. Additionally, when experimenting, if the order of connecting and operating the equipment is incorrect, something dangerous may occur. One must also know what to do when dangerous situations arise. For example, the temperature of the hot water bath and the position of the flask in the hot water should be kept constant to avoid bumping into the evaporator. In addition, moisture may enter the vacuum line and expand rapidly, causing the glass tube to burst. This can be avoided by researching and following the correct procedures in advance. Regarding waste liquids, when acid and cyanide waste liquids are mixed, highly toxic cyanide gas is generated. This can be prevented by checking the properties of the waste liquid and knowing the method of disposing and storing it correctly.

      (2) With regard to physical and mental fatigue, it is necessary to rest sufficiently before conducting experiments under good conditions. Even if you do not have time, it is best to take a break before doing so. When you are physically and mentally fatigued, your attentiveness decreases, and you overlook things or make simple mistakes that you ordinarily do not notice.

      (3) Regarding the lack of organization in the experimental environment, equipment, and reagents used in experiments may be placed too close together or in an undetermined location, resulting in damage due to incorrect operation or falling equipment. For example, when moving or dropping reagents with a Pasteur pipette, the pipette may hit something and the tip may break and fly off. In addition, there are other cases where a burette or the like is intended to be fixed with a clamp. However, the scissors are weak and fall, causing damage to the tip. This can be prevented by organizing the surrounding environment during the operation, deciding where to place the equipment according to the procedure, and moving it away from the operational range when finished.

      (4) Regarding deficiencies in management during normal times, issues such as how glassware is placed and the condition of the stored reagents need to be constantly monitored. For example, a metal reagent shelf rusted because the plastic bottles containing the reagents used for disinfection were damaged, and the reagents leaked. This can be prevented by carefully checking the bottle regularly and immediately replacing it if damaged. If you place glassware roughly when you put it away, it may collide with other glassware and break, or it may collapse and break when you take it out the next time.

      Laboratory safety requires management of five elements: machinery, materials, laws, and environment. However, in the one-year experience at a university chemistry laboratory (there were some elements that were mostly safe), the focus in this article was on chemical substance management, equipment management, and personnel management.

    Methods

    • A near miss is realizing a danger or problem before it leads to a severe accident[5,6]. This is an important concept for ensuring safe work environments. Near misses can occur during laboratory experiments in an inorganic chemistry at a university. Specific examples and countermeasures in our laboratory for 2023 (comments from master graduate students [GS] with laboratory experience and undergraduate students [US] with no experience) are provided below (Fig. 1).

      Figure 1. 

      Schematic representation of safety education in the laboratory.

      Laboratory safety education in the author's laboratory (as part of April 13, 2024) 'Information sharing and countermeasure reports (1) and (2) on last year's near-miss incidents' were imposed.

      (1) During the academic year 2023, we heard about cases where an accident was likely to occur during an experiment (six graduate students in the academic year 2024).

      (2) All the members of this laboratory shared information on effective measures and lessons learned (10 undergraduate students in 2024), and once again shared the information with everyone to alert them.

      (3) In addition, information on exits in the laboratory, fire extinguishers, disaster prevention equipment around the laboratory, and safety was also made known.

      (4) In addition, all members confirmed the storage status of chemicals and reagents in the laboratory.

      Here, the authors will discuss a case study of a university inorganic chemistry laboratory to which the author belongs and directs. Since the laboratory majors in inorganic and coordination chemistry, they will conduct organic synthesis of ligands, inorganic synthesis of metal complexes, crystallization using organic solvents, spectroscopic and electrochemical measurements of solutions, X-ray crystal structure analysis, theoretical calculations, etc. It differs from the organic synthesis laboratory in that, there is less use of organic solvents, heated stirring reactions, and analyzes specific organic substances, and differs from the physical analytical chemistry laboratory in that the use of measuring equipment is limited and involves synthesis experiments.

    Results

    • The (nine) main contents of the interview survey on dangerous experiences described in the method section and suggestions for countermeasures will be described below as 'results'.

      The gas generated when a highly volatile acid was added to a stirring solution was sucked out

    • [GS] There was a [US]’s comment on experimenting within the draft. There have been such cases in the past, not in fume hoods but in laboratory shelf spaces. The characteristics of highly volatile acids must be understood before they can be handled.

      [US] Work in a well-ventilated area.

      [US] Operate within a draft.

      [US] If highly volatile hazardous substances are added, conducting the experiment in a fume hood is preferable. In addition, be careful not to inhale highly concentrated gas by covering it with a watch glass, and if you do not have one, use a beaker, gloved hands, or fingers to keep the gas away from your face.

      [US] On days (or weeks) when you will be handling dangerous chemicals or fire, take measures such as emailing everyone on the day or at the beginning of the week. It is possible to immediately understand which reagents are being used and the risks in an emergency.

      When I was transferring a highly dangerous solution into a graduated cylinder using a Pasteur pipette, the tip of the Pasteur broke, and I almost got splashed with the liquid. In addition, the tip of the Pasteur pipette is placed upwards, so it is dangerous if it accidentally hits and falls

    • [GS] There was a comment about wearing white coats, safety glasses, and gloves. They must be worn when working with potentially hazardous solutions because exposure to solutions on clothing poses additional risks.

      [GS] Some commented that the Pasteur pipette should be placed with the tip facing down or that you can put the Pasteur pipette in a container taller than the tip of the Pasteur pipette to prevent it from dropping or getting stuck. Also, wash the used pipette immediately. It is important not to leave the path unattended after use.

      [US] If the risk is high, operate in a fume hood and wear safety glasses and gloves.

      [US] Never work near your face, always wear a lab coat, and take precautions, such as washing it off immediately.

      [US] When transferring a liquid, the distance that the Pasteur pipette must move is shortened by bringing the container containing the solution closer to the opening of the graduated cylinder. Alternatively, to prepare a volume of less than one drop by bringing the tip of the Pasteur pipette close to the inner wall of the graduated cylinder, and place your hand against the mouth of the graduated cylinder. This prevents the Pasteur pipette from accidentally moving or breaking.

      [US] Maintain the pipette tip facing downward as far as possible. Wash the used Pasteur pipettes as soon as possible, return them to the original box, and dispose of the unusable ones.

      [US] If it is in use, place it on a stand, immediately wash it, and store it in a place where it will not be touched accidentally, such as on a shelf.

      [US] Place the Pasteur pipette so that the tip faces downward.

      [US] Place the tip of a Pasteur pipette in a beaker.

      [US] Placing the Pasteur pipette in a container taller than the tip of the Pasteur pipette prevents it from getting caught. It can also be made more stable by placing the container carrying the Pasteur pipette close to the wall and gluing the bottom of the container to the desk.

      [US] When working, place the equipment as far inwards as possible from the shoulder to prevent objects from falling on the tabletop.

      When I swept the chromatography adsorbent, it flew up and almost hit my eye

    • [GS] There were comments about the use of safety glasses or a vacuum cleaner when the product contains harmful substances. Chromatography adsorbents may have a negative effect on the human body; therefore, protective goggles and masks must be worn.

      [US] First, be sure that safety glasses are worn and that the adsorbent is removed before cleaning.

      [US] Wear safety glasses and masks after exposure to dust.

      [US] It is important that you and those around you wear safety glasses.

      [US] Wear safety glasses to protect your eyes.

      [US] Wearing masks and goggle-type safety glasses (with rubber frames) is recommended when handling large quantities of hazardous powdered substances. Furthermore, using a vacuum cleaner rather than a broom is desirable to clean the chromatography adsorbents.

      How to handle glassware: The glassware broke when it was stored, and pieces of the glassware were left in the tray

    • [GS] Perform inspection. Comments included wearing protective gloves. If broken glassware is left unattended, remove it, put on protective gloves, and dispose of it in a trash bin designated for the equipment.

      [US] When storing, leave plenty of room in the storage space and dispose of any broken glassware immediately.

      [US] Be sure to clean any broken glass, as it is dangerous and can cause cuts to your hands. In addition, wear gloves when handling them to avoid cutting your hands.

      [US] Do not leave broken glass unattended; clean all broken glass.

      [US] Be sure to perform inspections. Rubber gloves are always worn when handling glassware.

      [US] To prevent glassware from being damaged during storage, it is a good idea to line the storage case with a bubble wrap or paper towel. In addition, when removing glassware, they should be aware of the possibility of breakage. It is advisable to wear gloves when handling the glassware.

      When I was washing a large amount of glassware at once, I dropped it, and it broke

    • [GS] The glassware should be washed carefully, and the number of pieces should be reduced. I think you should wash glassware in several batches.

      [US] Glassware should be washed in batches to make it easier to carry. In addition, hold each item in your hand and wash carefully.

      [US] If you try to carry a large amount or put it together, it may cause an accident, so divide it into parts you can safely carry.

      [US] Handle each piece of glassware carefully. Protect your feet with shoes.

      [US] First, when you realize there is a large amount, you should judge the danger and reduce the amount of glassware.

      The stirrer was poorly used

    • [GS] A stirring bar may have been dropped on the floor or thrown away by mistake. If a stirring bar is included in the equipment, a magnet should be attached to the bottom of the beaker or flask for cleaning or disposing of the solution.

      [US] When putting a stirrer into a beaker, put it in before adding the liquid so that the liquid does not splash. Also, tilt the beaker to avoid impacting the glass and place it as quietly as possible.

      [US] Glassware may get damaged while handling the stirrer, so handle it carefully.

      [US] When using a stirrer, do not drop it directly into the flask, but instead place it along the wall of the flask.

      [US] After using the stirrer, it is necessary to soak it in a liquid to prevent the substance from sticking. In addition, to prevent the stirrer from dropping or accidentally being thrown away, make sure to stick it to a designated place or dip it in a liquid.

      [US] If you have any concerns about the experimental procedure before proceeding, check it immediately so that serious accidents can be prevented.

      I left the lights on while going home

    • [GS] There was a comment on turning off lights. If several individuals are present in the laboratory, they should be confirmed. You must turn the lights off if you are alone in the laboratory.

      [US] Electricity in a room is safer and better than keeping it dark during experiments; however, lights that are not in use should be turned off for the sake of the environment. In addition, in the case of electricity in laboratory equipment, there is a risk that heat may build up or that you may touch it without knowing that it is on; therefore, you should turn it off frequently when it is not in use.

      [US] Turn off lights when you finish using them.

      [US] Glow-starter-type fluorescent lamps consume more power and the life of the glow lamp increases as they are turned on; therefore, turning them off frequently during the day is considered unnecessary. Those who remain until the end of the night or on holiday must thoroughly check the checklist before returning home.

      I tripped over the oil bath cord and almost dropped the equipment

    • [GS] There was a comment about extending the power cord of the oil bath with a tassel wire and fixing it to the floor with duct tape. I think you should use a power cord as close as possible to the oil bath.

      [US] Watch the steps. If possible, plug the oil bath cord into an outlet on a desk in the laboratory so that movement is not obstructed.

      [US] Dust may cause fire or unintentional electrical leakage, so turn off the power and unplug the cord if it is unnecessary.

      [US] Cords must be strategically placed so that they are not placed in aisles or caught.

      [US] The power cord of the oil bath should be extended with a cable and secured to the floor with duct tape to prevent it from being caught.

      [US] When installing power cords and extension cords on the floor, it is necessary to minimize the risk of the experimenter's legs becoming tangled using plastic wrap or curing tape from the floor to the legs of the laboratory table.

      [US] Do not place reagents or equipment used in the experiment at the back of the workspace. This prevents you from knocking over objects in the front when trying to reach objects at the back or from encountering hot objects when heating.

      The passageways in the laboratory are narrow, so if you do not speak to someone, you may end up bumping into someone

    • [GS] There were comments about taking a detour to an empty aisle or putting the necessary items in a tray and bringing them to the lab table before the experiment. When the corridors of a laboratory are crowded, it is necessary to gather everything required before starting an experiment.

      [US] Speak to others and think about shelf placement to make the aisles as wide as possible.

      [US] If possible, remove obstructions to passageways and change the layout to allow quick and safe movements during emergencies.

      [US] Another person may be using dangerous chemicals, so call out to them before passing behind.

      [US] When passing each other in aisles, say hello to each other and be careful not to bump into or overflow with potentially dangerous objects. In addition, the amount of movement could be reduced by placing the necessary items in a tray and bringing them to the laboratory bench before the experiment. Furthermore, experimenters should operate the installed equipment at desks near the equipment.

      [US] When passing behind a worker, say, 'I'll pass behind you'. Accidental contact can be avoided even if the aisle is not narrow.

    Discussion

    • The results collected dangerous experiences and countermeasures. Four of the measures considered important by the students were supplemented with a supplementary report that investigated them in more detail. For this reason, the content of the supplementary report on important items is included in the discussion. Although the items are limited and the degree to which the results are considered is a little weak, at least we can infer the depth of graduate students' understanding and knowledge of safety issues.

      Toxic gas: consciousness if it is a gas cylinder[7]

    • Chemicals are often used in experiments, but their appearance or smell cannot be identified in many, and there is a risk of using a chemical different from the one planned. This could cause a reaction different to what is expected, resulting in a near-miss situation where toxic gas is generated, and you will have to evacuate in haste. One possible solution to this problem is to label all chemicals accurately so that they can be identified. This includes any glassware, such as beakers or flasks, that you are using. In addition, removing all the labels after the experiment is completed means there is no possibility of confusion the next time the experiment is performed.

      However, when handling gas cylinders in a laboratory, incorrect handling of the type of gas can damage the surrounding area, causing injury or fire. Therefore, it is necessary to follow safe usage methods for gas cylinders.

      High-pressure gas cylinders contain toxic, flammable, inert, and combustion-supporting gases. In Japan, oxygen is black, hydrogen is red, nitrogen is grey, carbon dioxide is green, and ammonia is white, methane in ash-colored cylinders, chlorine in yellow, acetylene in brown, argon in ash, and propane in ash-colored cylinders.

      A pressure regulator is attached to the gas cylinder to use the gas. However, choosing a pressure regulator depending on the gas type is necessary. Please note that high-concentration oxygen gas can easily generate heat and catch fire owing to oil; therefore, it should be used without oil. With carbon dioxide and methane gases, depressurization causes an extreme temperature drop, which may cause impurities to precipitate and prevent normal pressure adjustment. Hydrogen gas is prone to high temperatures and vibrations in pressure regulators. Ammonia and chlorine gas easily dissolve in water and react with water in the air, corroding equipment and preventing normal pressure adjustment.

      Gas cylinders contain information about the container and the filled gas. When some of them contained the word 'oxygen' in the manufacturer's name, there were cases in which people mistakenly thought the gas in the cylinder was oxygen. Accidents caused by incorrect gas cylinders include the leakage of toxic gases and fires caused by incorrect selection of pressure regulators. Gas cylinder errors can be prevented by checking the color of the cylinder, having two or more people check the gas cylinder, and providing safety education. We believe that these methods can reduce human errors. Safety education requires correct knowledge about selecting and using pressure regulators; therefore, it is necessary to acquire this knowledge through regular studies. It is also important to learn how to reduce damage in the laboratory in the event of an accident involving a gas cylinder.

      Chromatography adsorbents[8]

    • Chromatography is often used in experiments to separate substances. However, because various substances are used as adsorbents, there are some questions regarding the effects of the adsorbents on the human body.

      There are two types of adsorption in chromatography: physical adsorption (mainly through intermolecular forces) and chemical adsorption (mainly through hydrogen, coordination, and covalent bonds). This study focused on activated carbon and silica gel adsorbents from the former and calcium oxide from the latter.

      Activated carbon poses no risk of exposure and is a relatively easy-to-use adsorbent. However, because it generates toxic carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide during thermal decomposition, it cannot be used at high temperatures, in direct sunlight, or with strong oxidizing agents. Therefore, it is necessary to be careful about these issues.

      Similar to activated carbon, silica gel is often used as a physical adsorbent; however, it may be carcinogenic and harmful to aquatic environments. In addition, blue indicates the conditions to be avoided, including high temperature, direct sunlight, and humidity. The dangerous and harmful decomposition products include silicon-derived compounds, metal oxides, and halides.

      As mentioned above, calcium oxide is used as a chemical adsorbent and as a heating agent for lunch boxes. However, it can cause skin irritation, serious eye damage, and organ damage (respiratory system) through prolonged or repeated exposure. It is basic in nature and reacts with water. Avoidable conditions include high temperatures, direct sunlight, moisture, and water. Incompatible materials include acidic substances, water, hazardous decomposition products, and metal oxides.

      When examining these three oxidizing agents, it was found that, according to their chemical properties, adsorbents that employ chemical adsorption have contraindications and decomposition products in contrast to adsorbents that utilize physical adsorption. Charcoal is also a common ingredient in activated charcoal, which is made from charcoal used in barbecues.

      Many of these precautions can be predicted based on chemical knowledge and are useful when implementing preventive measures; however, this information may not be utilized and may hinder fire-extinguishing operations. Therefore, it is important to understand these chemical findings and proceed with the experiments calmly.

      Organizing glassware[9]

    • The closest near-miss experience I had ever experienced was when I was diluting or synthesizing various solutions in several chemical-filled flasks on my desk, and my sleeve happened to hit the flasks accidentally. Once the flask was moved, it almost dropped off.

      In the experiment, approximately 10 solutions were prepared, the absorbance of each solution was measured, and the relationship between the differences in concentration and absorbance was considered.

      Therefore, many flasks were inevitably scattered on the desk during the experiment. However, during the experiment, all the flasks were within easy reach; therefore, the flasks were thought to hit the sleeve. In addition, another participant alerted me that the flask was about to fall over, and by asking someone to hold the flask, the flask did not fall over, and the medicine inside spilled out.

      As a countermeasure, we believe that it is important to place items that can break if they fall at the center of the desk where they cannot be touched, regardless of whether they contain chemicals. In addition, when conducting experiments, it should be ensured that the experiments are performed with collaborators rather than alone so that it can be mutually confirmed whether there are any risks. In addition, before experimenting, confirm with your collaborators the risks that may arise during the experiment and conduct the experiment safely by paying attention to those points.

      Of course, improvements should be made to the layout of laboratories where many people are crowded and near dangerous materials, as well as the walking lines during work. In contrast, conducting experiments alone in a laboratory (such as at night) is prohibited, even if there are few people present.

      Static electricity (which can lead to fire)[10]

    • Near misses may also have been caused by static electricity. When handling liquids in the laboratory, static electricity may be generated, and the liquid may splatter. In particular, when using highly volatile chemicals, such as organic solvents, there is a risk of fire or explosion caused by static electricity. Possible countermeasures to this problem include using appropriate protective equipment, such as rubber gloves, to reduce the generation of static electricity and maintaining appropriate humidity in the laboratory to prevent the air from drying out. In addition, electrostatic shoes can help to discharge static electricity.

    Conclusions

    • In conclusion, predicting near misses that may occur during experiments and taking appropriate countermeasures against them are essential for the safety and efficient progress of the experiments. A sophisticated understanding of the risks in the experimental environment and adequate precautions based on this understanding is the basis for ensuring the safety and sustainability of experimental work. Furthermore, appropriate safety training and regular reviews of safety measures are essential to maintain the safety of the experimental work. By maintaining a safe experimental environment and prioritizing the health and safety of the experimenters, we can maximize the results of our experiments and contribute to research progress. Therefore, we believe that predicting near misses during experiments and taking appropriate countermeasures are essential to ensure safety, which is the foundation of our research[11].

      In addition, various near misses in experiments include risks related to the safety of the experimental equipment, risks due to human factors, and even risks related to handling waste. Regarding the safety of experimental equipment, improper handling may cause equipment failure or accidents. Human factors in this work are also important and can lead to errors and accidents owing to carelessness and fatigue. Furthermore, following the appropriate disposal methods and treatment procedures when handling waste is important. To minimize these risks, it is essential to improve the training and awareness of experimenters and the entire research team, as described below.

      · Maintenance of workspace: Reduce the risk of falling equipment or falling by always keeping the workspace and aisles clean.

      Be aware of where the equipment and chemicals are placed, and be sure to avoid confusion when others use them.

      · Personal precautions: When conducting experiments, wear a lab coat and gloves to prevent chemicals from coming into contact with your skin, and wear goggles and glasses to protect your eyes.

      In addition, periodic equipment inspection and replacement should be established to ensure safety.

      Do not force yourself to conduct experiments if you do not feel well; the same applies if you do not feel mentally well.

      · Emergency contact: When an incident occurs that cannot be solved by oneself, and there is no one in the laboratory, or it is impossible to solve it by the laboratory personnel.

      In this way, the two leading causes of near misses are 'inattention' and 'lack of awareness'. The former can be avoided if one approaches it calmly, while the latter can be avoided by preparing and researching before working on an experiment. Although it may seem simple, you should always check what you're handling beforehand, return any equipment or chemicals you use to their rightful location, and alert those nearby if you're using dangerous chemicals. By considering this basic safety measure while conducting your research activities, you can prevent accidents from occurring, and if they do occur, you can respond quickly.

      However, if only a few people were aware of this, the laboratory would not function. In laboratories, it is common for different experiments to be conducted simultaneously; in some cases, conducting them in a small space may be necessary. Under such circumstances, a person's carelessness or lack of awareness may affect the entire laboratory. In addition, people often have a high level of awareness when they first join the laboratory or after they have had the opportunity to think about near misses. However, as time passes, their level of awareness decreases. There must be a common understanding within the laboratory that dangers can be avoided by conducting research activities appropriately and that any perceived danger must be dealt with immediately.

      Although it is not possible to compare the emergency response abilities of undergraduate and graduate students, it seems to be a fact that there is a difference in the knowledge of undergraduate students with no laboratory experience and graduate students with several years of experience. This is because (to prevent accidents involving inexperienced undergraduate students) universities have established rules that allow different actions depending on the number of years of experience. The authors believe that this finding will serve as a guideline for safety education. In the unfortunate event that a small fire occurred in a certain laboratory (Fig. 2), graduate students were able to quickly extinguish the fire and notify the fire department. However, university regulations prohibit undergraduate students from conducting experiments during times when there are fewer people.

      Figure 2. 

      Verification work by fire department, police, and related parties after a small-scale fire in a laboratory (January 2024).

      Presently, the author is focusing on the university’s inorganic chemistry laboratory near misses. There must be a big difference in the proficiency level of experimenters, work content, and scale between universities and companies. However, as research activities frequently require the use of equipment and devices outside of the lab, it is important to be mindful of potential risks in any situation. If you avoid a near miss, you might be able to learn from it for yourself, but if not, you need to approach your research activities knowing that it could result in major accidents and damage.

    Author contributions

    • The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: study conception and design, draft manuscript preparation: Akitsu T; Akitsu T and Nakane D reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

    Data availability

    • All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

    Acknowledgments

    • The authors would like to thank all 2024 students of the Akitsu Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo, Japan.

      Conflict of interest

      • The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

      Rights and permissions
      • Copyright: © 2024 by the author(s). Published by Maximum Academic Press on behalf of Nanjing Tech University. This article is an open access article distributed under Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
    Figure (2)  References (11)
  • About this article
    Cite this article
    Akitsu T, Nakane D. 2024. Cases of near misses in chemical laboratories of universities and their countermeasures. Emergency Management Science and Technology 4: e019 doi: 10.48130/emst-0024-0019
    Akitsu T, Nakane D. 2024. Cases of near misses in chemical laboratories of universities and their countermeasures. Emergency Management Science and Technology 4: e019 doi: 10.48130/emst-0024-0019
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Catalog

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  • Introduction
  • Methods
  • Results

  • The gas generated when a highly volatile acid was added to a stirring solution was sucked out

  • When I was transferring a highly dangerous solution into a graduated cylinder using a Pasteur pipette, the tip of the Pasteur broke, and I almost got splashed with the liquid. In addition, the tip of the Pasteur pipette is placed upwards, so it is dangerous if it accidentally hits and falls

  • When I swept the chromatography adsorbent, it flew up and almost hit my eye

  • How to handle glassware: The glassware broke when it was stored, and pieces of the glassware were left in the tray

  • When I was washing a large amount of glassware at once, I dropped it, and it broke

  • The stirrer was poorly used

  • I left the lights on while going home

  • I tripped over the oil bath cord and almost dropped the equipment

  • The passageways in the laboratory are narrow, so if you do not speak to someone, you may end up bumping into someone

  • Discussion

  • Toxic gas: consciousness if it is a gas cylinder[7]

  • Chromatography adsorbents[8]

  • Organizing glassware[9]

  • Static electricity (which can lead to fire)[10]

  • Conclusions
  • Author contributions
  • Data availability
  • Acknowledgments
  • Conflict of interest
  • Rights and permissions
  • About this article
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