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Wheat stands as one of the world’s most crucial staple food crops, furnishing 20% of the global population’s calorie intake and holding a pivotal role in ensuring food security worldwide. Wheat yield is mainly determined by three factors: thousand grain weight (TGW), spike number per unit area, and grain number per spike[1]. The optimization of these three components is of great significance for improving yield. Among these, increasing the grain weight emerges as a particularly significant avenue for boosting wheat productivity. Traits shaping grain morphology, including grain length, grain width, and grain thickness, directly affect grain size, which in turn affects grain weight.
The development of seeds significantly influences grain weight. The mature seeds of angiosperms are composed of the embryo, endosperm, and seed coat. The maternal and zygotic tissues jointly participate in the regulation of the growth and development of seeds as well as control of the synergistic growth of embryo, endosperm, and seed coat. As grain development advances, seed coat cells perpetually undergo division and expansion, accompanied by continuous carbohydrate accumulation in the endosperm[2]. Genes pertinent to transport, carbohydrate metabolism, and starch synthesis also become active during development. Starch is the main storage component of the wheat endosperm, and its content is a key regulator of grain weight. In addition, plant hormone contents exhibit significant changes during seed development, and genes related to metabolism participate extensively in seed development.
In this review, we summarize recent research on key regulators of wheat grain weight including transcriptional regulatory factors, post-translation modification factors, the G-protein signaling pathway, and phytohormone signalings to understand the regulatory mechanisms of wheat grain weight (Fig. 1, Table 1).
Figure 1.
Regulatory networks involved in grain weight in wheat. Several genes involved in transcriptional regulatory factors, post-translation modification factors, the G-protein signaling pathway, and phytohormone signalings participate in wheat grain weight regulation. Broken lines indicate inhibitory regulation. Arrowheads represent positive regulation. Elliptical overlaps represent interactions.
Table 1. Genes involved in wheat grain weight regulation.
Protein name Gene ID Protein category Positive(+)/negative(−)
regulatorElite haplotype for
high grain weightReference Starch synthesis-related genes reported to be involved in wheat grain weight TaCwi-A1 TraesCS2A03G0736600 Cell wall invertase + TaCwi-A1a [3] TaCWI-5D TraesCS5D03G1216700 Cell wall invertase + Hap-5D-C [4] TaSUT1-A TraesCS4A03G0027400 Sucrose transporters + TaSUT1 in Kauz [5] TaSUT1-B TraesCS4B03G0758500 Sucrose transporters + TaSUT1 in Kauz [5] TaSUT1-D TraesCS4D03G0679400 Sucrose transporters + TaSUT1 in Kauz [5] TaSus1-A TraesCS7A03G0375000 Sucrose synthase + TaSus1-7A-Hap-1 [6, 7] TaSus1-B TraesCS7B03G0171900 Sucrose synthase + TaSus1-7B-Hap-T [6, 7] TaSus1-D TraesCS7D03G0358200 Sucrose synthase + − [6, 7] TaSus2-A TraesCS2A03G0349200 Sucrose synthase + TaSus2-2A-Hap-A [6, 8] TaSus2-B TraesCS2B03G0468900 Sucrose synthase + TaSus2-2B-Hap-H [6, 8] TaSus2-D TraesCS2D03G0366700 Sucrose synthase + − [6, 8] TaBT1-A TraesCS6A03G0433200 Sucrose transporter + − [9] TaBT1-B TraesCS6B03G0559700 Sucrose transporter + Hap1 and Hap2 [9] TaBT1-D TraesCS6D03G0376900 Sucrose transporter + − [9] TaAGPL1-B TraesCS1B03G1206000 Large subunit gene of the AGPase + TaAGP-L-1B-Hap-I [10, 11] TaAGPS-1 TraesCS7A03G0682600 Small subunit gene of the AGPase + TaAGP-S1-7A-Hap-I [10] TaSBEIII-A TraesCS7A03G0826800 Starch-branching enzyme + Allele-T [12] TaSSIV-A TraesCS1A03G0866200 Starch synthases + Hap-2-1A [13, 14] TaSSIV-B TraesCS1B03G1004700 Starch synthases + Hap-3-1B [13, 14] TaSSIV-D TraesCS1D03G0838700 Starch synthases + − [13, 14] GWD-A TraesCS6A03G0662800 Glucan, water dikinase − − [15] GWD-B TraesCS6B03G0813900 Glucan, water dikinase − − [15] GWD-D TraesCS6D03G0552200 Glucan, water dikinase − − [15] Transcriptional regulatory factors TaNAC019-A TraesCS3A03G0172000 NAC transcription factor + − [16] TaNAC019-B TraesCS3B03G0216600 NAC transcription factor + TaNAC019-BI [16] TaNAC019-D TraesCS3D03G0154500 NAC transcription factor + − [16] TaNAC100-A TraesCS2A03G0808100 NAC transcription factor + TaNAC100-2A-H1 [17] TaNAC100-B TraesCS2B03G0891700 NAC transcription factor + − [17] TaNAC100-D TraesCS2D03G0746900 NAC transcription factor + − [17] TaPGS1 TraesCS1D03G0219000 bHLH transcription factor + − [18] TaPGS1 TraesCS1D03G0219700 bHLH transcription factor + − [18] TaFI3 TraesCS3A03G1169900 PLATZ transcription factor + − [18] TaGSNE TraesCS5B03G0668000 WRKY transcription factor + TaGSNE-Hap-2 [19] TaHDZ-A34 TraesCS7A03G0760400 HD-Zip transcription factor + Hap-ABD [20] TaHDZ-B34 TraesCS7B03G0590000 HD-Zip transcription factor + Hap-ABD [20] TaHDZ-D34 TraesCS7D03G0729900 HD-Zip transcription factor + Hap-ABD [20] TaGW8-B1 TraesCS7B03G0430500 SPL transcription factor + TaGW8-B1a [21] TaSPL14-A TraesCS5A03G0658100 SPL transcription factor + − [22] TaSPL14-B TraesCS5B03G0692900 SPL transcription factor + − [22] TaSPL14-D TraesCS5D03G0627900 SPL transcription factor + − [22] TaSPL14-7A TraesCS7A03G0567100 SPL transcription factor + TaSPL14-7A-Hap1/2 [23] TaSPL14-7B TraesCS7B03G0393600 SPL transcription factor + − [23] TaSPL14-7D TraesCS7D03G0548900 SPL transcription factor + − [23] Post-Translational Modifications (PTMs)
Ubiquitin–proteasome pathwayTaGW2-6A TraesCS6A03G0480200 RING-type E3 ubiquitin ligase − Hap-A [24, 25] TaGW2-6B TraesCS6B03G0578500 RING-type E3 ubiquitin ligase − TaGW2-B-HapI/II [24, 25] TaGW2-6D TraesCS6D03G0404800 RING-type E3 ubiquitin ligase − − [24, 25] TaDA1-A TraesCSU03G0004100LC Ubiquitin receptor − TaDA1-A-HapI [26] TaDA1-B TraesCS2B03G0048000 Ubiquitin receptor − − [26] TaDA1-D TraesCS2D03G0031900 Ubiquitin receptor − − [26] TaSDIR1-4A TraesCS4A03G0197400 RING-type E3 ubiquitin ligase − TaSDIR1-4A-2 [27] TaPUB1-A TraesCS5A03G1197700 U-box E3 ligase + − [28] TaPUB1-B TraesCS4B03G0885300 U-box E3 ligase + − [28] TaPUB1-D TraesCS4D03G0783100 U-box E3 ligase + − [28] ZnF-A TraesCS4A03G0701600 RING-type E3 ubiquitin ligase + − [29] ZnF-B TraesCS4B03G0092600 RING-type E3 ubiquitin ligase + − [29] ZnF-D TraesCS4D03G0066800 RING-type E3 ubiquitin ligase + − [29] SnRK and phosphatase pathways TaSnRK2.3-A TraesCS1A03G0569000 Sucrose non-fermenting 1 (SNF1)-related protein kinase Hap-1A-1 [30] TaSnRK2.3-B TraesCS1B03G0660500 Sucrose non-fermenting 1 (SNF1)-related protein kinase Hap-1B-1 [30] TaSnRK2.9-A TraesCS5A03G0177100 Sucrose non-fermenting 1 (SNF1)-related protein kinase Hap-5A-1/2 [31] TaSnRK2.9-B TraesCS5B03G0188000 Sucrose non-fermenting 1 (SNF1)-related protein kinase − [31] TaSnRK2.9-D TraesCS5D03G0195600 Sucrose non-fermenting 1 (SNF1)-related protein kinase − [31] TaSnRK2.10-A TraesCS4A03G0621500 Sucrose non-fermenting 1 (SNF1)-related protein kinase Hap-4A-H [32] TaSnRK2.10-B TraesCS4B03G0179500 Sucrose non-fermenting 1 (SNF1)-related protein kinase − [32] TaSnRK2.10-D TraesCS4D03G0149100 Sucrose non-fermenting 1 (SNF1)-related protein kinase − [32] TaPSTOL TraesCS5A03G0115500LC Phosphate Starvation Tolerance 1 + − [33] TaGL3-5A TraesCS5A03G0897900 PPKL family—Ser/Thr phosphatase + TaGL3-5A-G [1] TaGL3-5B TraesCS5B03G0943200 PPKL family—Ser/Thr phosphatase + − [1] TaGL3-5D TraesCS5D03G0859400 PPKL family—Ser/Thr phosphatase + − [1] TaGL3.3-A TraesCS5A03G0073900 PPKL family—Ser/Thr phosphatase + − [34] TaGL3.3-B TraesCS5B03G0068000 PPKL family—Ser/Thr phosphatase + TaGL3.3-5B-C [34] TaGL3.3-D TraesCS5D03G0098300 PPKL family—Ser/Thr phosphatase + − [34] TaTPP-7A TraesCS7A03G0422300 Trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase + TaTPP-7A-HapI [35] TaTPP-7B TraesCS7B03G0228800 Trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase + − [35] TaTPP-7D TraesCS7D03G0410500 Trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase + − [35] Asparagine N-glycosylation pathway TaSTT3b-2A TraesCS2A03G1282700 Catalytic subunit of oligosaccharyltransferase + − [36] TaSTT3b-2B TraesCS2B03G1473200 Catalytic subunit of oligosaccharyltransferase + − [36] TaSTT3b-2D TraesCS2D03G1245300 Catalytic subunit of oligosaccharyltransferase + − [36] G-protein signaling pathway TaGS3-4A TraesCS4A03G1194500 Gγ subunit − [37, 38] TaGS3-7A TraesCS7A03G0037700 Gγ subunit − [37, 38] TaGS3-7D TraesCS7D03G0033100 Gγ subunit − [37, 38] TaDEP1-A TraesCS5A03G0545300 Gγ subunit + TaDEP1-Hap1 [39] TaDEP1-B TraesCS5B03G0555000 Gγ subunit + − [39] TaDEP1-D TraesCS5D03G0509000 Gγ subunit + − [39] Phytohormone signalings CK TaCKX2 TraesCS3A03G0298200 Cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX) enzymes + TaCKX2A-2 [40] TaCKX4 TraesCS3A03G1128900 Cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX) enzymes + TaCKX4A-2 [40] TaCKX5 TraesCS3A03G0763900 Cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX) enzymes + TaCKX5A-3 [40] TaCKX9 TraesCS1A03G0609600 Cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX) enzymes + TaCKX9A-2 [40] TaCKX6a02 TraesCS3D03G0306000 Cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX) enzymes + TaCKX6a02-D1a [41] TaCKX6-D1 TraesCS3D03G0305400 Cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX) enzymes − TaCKX6-D1-a [42] GA TaGASR7-A TraesCS7A03G0485700 Gibberellin-regulated protein − H1c [43, 44] TaGASR7-B TraesCS7B02G115300 Gibberellin-regulated protein − − [43, 44] TaGASR7-D TraesCS7D02G210500 Gibberellin-regulated protein − − [43, 44] Auxin TaTGW-7A TraesCS7A03G0542800 Involved in the tryptophan biosynthetic pathway + TaTGW-7Aa [45] TaTGW-7B TraesCS7B03G0358400 Involved in the tryptophan biosynthetic pathway + − [45] TaTGW-7D TraesCS7D03G0520200 Involved in the tryptophan biosynthetic pathway + − [45] TaTGW6 TraesCS7D03G0173900 IAA–glucose (IAA-Glc) hydrolase activity + − [46] TaIAA21-A TraesCS7A03G0816300 Auxin/indole acetic acid repressor − Hap2, Hap3, Hap5 TaIAA21-B TraesCS7B03G0674700 Auxin/indole acetic acid repressor − − TaIAA21-D TraesCS7D03G0801000 Auxin/indole acetic acid repressor − − TaARF25-A TraesCS5A03G0098100 Auxin response factor (ARF) protein + TaARF25-B TraesCS5B03G0104300 Auxin response factor (ARF) protein + TaARF25-D TraesCS5D03G0114800 Auxin response factor (ARF) protein + BR TaD11-2A TraesCS2A03G0818100 BR biosynthesis enzymes + TaD11-2A-HapI [47] TaD11-2B TraesCS2B03G0904700 BR biosynthesis enzymes + − [47] TaD11-2D TraesCS2D03G0759600 BR biosynthesis enzymes + − [47] Tasg-D1 TraesCS3D03G0288900 STKc_GSK3 Kinase − − [48] ABA TaPYL1-1A TraesCS1A03G0514200 Abscisic acid (ABA) receptor PYL + − [49] TaPYL1-1B TraesCS1B03G0603200 Abscisic acid (ABA) receptor PYL + TaPYL1-1BIn-442 [49] TaPYL1-1D TraesCS1D03G0499200 Abscisic acid (ABA) receptor PYL + − [49] TaMYB70-A TraesCS5A03G0432900 MYB transcription factor + − [49] TaMYB70-B TraesCS5B03G0428700 MYB transcription factor + − [49] TaMYB70-D TraesCS5D03G0401500 MYB transcription factor + − [49] TaABI5-A TraesCS3A03G0880400 Basic/region leucine zipper transcription factor − − [28] TaABI5-B TraesCS3B03G1006600 Basic/region leucine zipper transcription factor − − [28] TaABI5-D TraesCS3D03G0808000 Basic/region leucine zipper transcription factor − − [28] JA KAT-2B TraesCS6B03G1211100 Keto-acyl thiolase 2B + − [50] TaPAP6-A TraesCS2A03G0298800 Fibrillin family member + − [51] TaPAP6-B TraesCS2B03G0419200 Fibrillin family member + − [51] TaPAP6-D TraesCS2D03G0317100 Fibrillin family member + − [51] TaGL1-B1 TraesCS1B03G0239600 Carotenoid isomerase gene + TaGL1-B1b [51] Other regulators TaCYP78A3-A TraesCS7A03G0630800 Cytochrome P450(CYP) 78A3 protein + − [52] TaCYP78A3-B TraesCS7B03G0455800 Cytochrome P450(CYP) 78A3 protein + − [52] TaCYP78A3-D TraesCS7D03G0611800 Cytochrome P450(CYP) 78A3 protein + − [52] TaGW7-A TraesCS2A03G0367000 TONNEAU1-recruiting motif (TRM1) protein − H1a [53] TaGW7-B TraesCS2B03G0488200 TONNEAU1-recruiting motif (TRM1) protein − H1b [53] TaGW7-D TraesCS2D03G0384600 TONNEAU1-recruiting motif (TRM1) protein − H1d [53] TaFlo2-A1 TraesCS2A03G1201700 FLOURY ENDOSPERM2 (Flo2) gene + TaFlo2-A1b [54, 55] TaGS5-3A TraesCS3A03G0396700LC Serine carboxypeptidases + TaGS5-3A-T [56] TaMGD-A TraesCS6A03G0937800 Monogalactosyl diacylglycerol + − [57] TaMGD-B TraesCS6B03G1143600 Monogalactosyl diacylglycerol + − [57] TaMGD-D TraesCS6D03G0814200 Monogalactosyl diacylglycerol + − [57] -
Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during current study.
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Gao Y, Li Y, Xia W, Dai M, Dai Y, et al. 2023. The regulation of grain weight in wheat. Seed Biology 2:17 doi: 10.48130/SeedBio-2023-0017
The regulation of grain weight in wheat
- Received: 27 May 2023
- Accepted: 11 October 2023
- Published online: 06 November 2023
Abstract: Wheat (Triticum aestivum L., AABBDD) is one of the world's most extensively cultivated crops, furnishing vital nutrients and energy for human consumption. Wheat seeds are the primary sustenance source. Given the mounting global population and dwindling arable land, enhancing wheat grain yield has implications for global dood security. A pivotal agronomic trait influencing grain yield is grain weight, which is predominantly contingent on seed size and endosperm components and is regulated by complex and precise molecular networks. Endogenous factors, such as transcriptional and post-translational regulators, exert pivotal influence over seed development. Notably, starch is the main storage component of wheat endosperm, and starch synthesis-related genes exert an important effect on grain weight. Prior reviews on wheat grain traits have mostly focused on the regulation of grain size, and the contents of such reviews are almost entirely written based on the regulatory network of rice seed size. Although many regulatory mechanisms for various traits are similar in rice and wheat, there are lots of differences in wheat due to its large and intricate genome. An all-encompassing panorama of the grain weight regulatory network has not yet been comprehensive. This review summarizes the catalog of reported genes, discusses the emerging molecular mechanisms, and delves into regulatory networks to foster a more holistic understanding of the intricate regulation of wheat seed weight.
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Key words:
- Grain weight /
- Starch /
- Plant hormones /
- Post-translation modification factors