A preliminary study on the occurrence and significance of phytophagous arthropods and natural enemies on <i>Sapindus saponaria</i> saplings

Germano Leão Demolin-Leite; Germano Leão Demolin-Leite

doi:10.48130/tia-0024-0001

2024 Volume 4

Article Contents

Abstract

References

Next Previous

ARTICLE Open Access

A preliminary study on the occurrence and significance of phytophagous arthropods and natural enemies on Sapindus saponaria saplings

Germano Leão Demolin-Leite^, ,

Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Instituto de Ciências Agrárias, Insetário G.W.G. Moraes, 39.404-547, Montes Claros, Minas Gerais State, Brasil

More Information

Corresponding author: germano.demolin@gmail.com

Received: 31 October 2023
Revised: 21 December 2023
Accepted: 18 January 2024
Published online: 20 February 2024
Technology in Agronomy 4, Article number: e004 (2024) | Cite this article

Abstract

Sapindus saponaria trees exhibit potential for global application in the restoration of degraded ecosystems. However, the susceptibility of S. saponaria saplings to detrimental effects caused by various phytophagous insects and mites necessitates a comprehensive evaluation. In this investigation, 48 S. saponaria saplings were scrutinized with a focus on phytophagous arthropods and their natural enemies. The assessment involved the determination of the Importance Index-Production Unknown (% I.I.-P.U.) to rank the arthropods based on their impact. Notably, phytophagous arthropods such as Liriomyza sp., Bemisia sp., Phaneropterinae, Tetranychus sp., Tropidacris collaris, and Stereoma anchoralis exhibited the highest % I.I.-P.U. on the S. saponaria saplings, highlighting their potential threat to future commercial crops given their association with crop pests. Conversely, natural enemies, including Cycloneda sanguinea and Pseudomyrmex termitarius, demonstrated the highest % I.I.-P.U. on these saplings. This underscores the significance of these natural predators in mitigating the impact of herbivorous arthropods on S. saponaria saplings. The presence of C. sanguinea and P. termitarius suggests their potential value in enhancing the resilience of S. saponaria saplings by effectively reducing the population of herbivorous arthropods.
- Agriculture,
- Ants,
- Damage,
- Beetle,
- Forestry production

Introduction

Huangqin tea (HQT, Fig. 1), also called Huangjin tea in Chinese, has a long history of consumption in China^[1]. It is a healthy herbal tea crafted from the aerial parts of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, S. scordifolia Fisch, S. amoena C. H. Wrigh, and S. viscidula Bung^[2−4]. Unlike traditional tea made from Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze, HQT lacks stimulating components and is renowned for clearing heat and dry dampness, eliminating toxins, promoting digestion, and soothing fire^[1,5]. It can be enjoyed both as a hot beverage and as a cold drink, and modern research suggests that HQT exhibits several pharmacological properties, such as anti-inflammatory, chemopreventive effects of colorectal cancer^[6], anti-aging^[7], cardiovascular protection, hypoglycemic effect, hypolipidemic effect, anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, anti-influenza virus, and enhance human resistance^[8−12]. The predominant compounds found in HQT are flavonoids and essential oils and its potential health benefits are likely attributed to the presence of distinctive flavonoids, including isocarthamidin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide, carthamidin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide, apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranside, chrysin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide, scutellarin, baicalin, wogonoside, and chrysin^[13−18].

Figure 1. The aerial parts of S. baicalensis Georgi, dried and brewed Huangqin tea.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

HQT is made using simple ingredients and has a straightforward preparation method. Traditionally, the above-ground portions of Scutellaria species have been utilized for crafting HQT, with the differentiation between stems and leaves remaining unessential. During the hot summer season (July to August), the aerial parts (stem, leaves, flowers) of these species of Scutellaria from a single source are collected and cut into small sections, which are then directly dried for later use. Alternatively, freshly harvested branch and leaf sections may undergo a transformative process through multiple rounds of steaming and subsequent drying within a steamer. Once suitably conditioned, they find their place within sealed containers, poised for extended storage periods. The brewing ritual commences by incorporating 7−8 g of this tea into 2 L of water, with subsequent replenishments of water at intervals 2−3 times. As the brewing ritual concludes, HQT graces the senses with a resplendent golden infusion—earning it another name, 'Huangjin tea'.

HQT boasts a range of health advantages and is frequently gathered from the upper sections of Scutellaria species plants cultivated in the vicinity, intended for tea consumption. In recent years, large planting bases have been established in several regions, such as Beijing, Inner Mongolia Wuchuan, Yakeshi, Hebei Chengde, Shanxi Province, and Shandong Province, to comprehensively develop S. baicalensis resources. HQT has gained more attention and is now produced by specialized operating companies in various grades, such as bulk tea, bagged tea, and unique tea culture^[12].

To provide up-to-date information on the chemical composition, bioactivity, and safety aspects of the Scutellaria genus from HQT, this review paper has collected related literature from various databases, such as PubMed, Web of Science, Sci Finder, Scopus, Baidu Scholar, China National Knowledge Internet (CNKI), Wanfang and Weipu Data. This paper aims to draw attention to the need for further research and application of HQT in preventing and managing certain chronic diseases.

Chemical components of Huangqin Tea

HQT can be derived from several Scutellaria species. S. baicalensis is the most extensively cultivated, with a significant biomass in its aerial parts. Consequently, the primary source of HQT is the aerial part of S. baicalensis, and research focused on these aerial parts is also the most extensive.

The aerial part and the root of S. baicalensis share similarities in their primary constituents, notably the significant presence of flavonoids, which are regarded as the main active components. However, there are specific chemical differences between the above-ground and underground parts of S. baicalensis. Our preliminary experiments have revealed the disparities in chemical composition between these two parts^[18]. Notably, the root of S. baicalensis finds its primary use in medicinal applications, characterized by notably higher expression levels of specific 4′-deoxyflavones compared to the aerial organs. In contrast, the above-ground parts of the plant are employed to prepare tea. This differentiation in utilizing these plant components reflects the accumulated wisdom of generations cultivated through extensive periods of tasting and experience.

This section provided an in-depth review of the chemical composition of the plant from which HQT is derived. Additionally, a specific emphasis on reviewing the aerial parts of S. baicalensis, which serve as the primary source of HQT has been placed.

Flavonoids

In the 1970s, researchers began to study the chemical composition of the aerial parts of S. baicalensis. The flavonoids are the most abundant chemical components in the aerial parts (flowers, stems, and leaves), and about 54 flavonoid compounds were identified (Table 1, Fig. 2). Most of them are flavonoids, dihydro flavonoids, and glycosides. The main glycoside-forming sugars are arabinose, glucose, and glucuronide, with the most abundant glucuronide glycosides. The optimization of extraction processes can yield a remarkable total flavonoid content of up to 5% in the stems and leaves of S. baicalensis^[19].

Table 1. Flavonoids of HQT.

Number	Name	Formula	Species	Ref.
1	2',5-Dihydroxy-3',6,7,8-tetramethoxyflavone	C₁₉H₁₈O₈	S. baicalensis	[17]
2	2',6-Dihydroxyflavone	C₁₅H₁₀O₄	S. baicalensis	[16]
3	3',4',5,5',7-Pentamethoxyflavone	C₂₀H₂₀O₇	S. baicalensis	[16]
4	4',5-Dihydroxy-3',5',6,7-tetramethoxyflavone	C₁₉H₁₈O₈	S. baicalensis	[22,27]
5	4',5-Dihydroxy-7-methoxyflavanone	C₁₆H₁₄O₅	S. baicalensis	[16]
6	5,4′-Dihydroxy-6,7,8,3′-tetramethoxyflavone	C₁₉H₁₈O₈	S. baicalensis	[17]
7	5,2′-Dihydroxy-6,7,8-trimethoxyflavone	C₁₈H₁₆O₇	S. baicalensis	[17]
8	5,2′-Dihydroxy-6,7,8,3′-tetramethoxyflavone	C₁₉H₁₈O₈	S. baicalensis	[17]
9	5,2′-Dihydroxy-7,8-dimethoxyflavone	C₁₇H₁₄O₆	S. baicalensis	[17]
10	5,2′-Dihydroxy-7,8,6′-trimethoxyflavone	C₁₈H₁₆O₇	S. baicalensis	[17]
11	5,6,7,3',4'-Pentahydroxyflavone-7-O-glucuronide	C₂₁H₂₀O₁₃	S. baicalensis	[13]
12	5,6,7,4'-Tetrahydroxydihydroflavone	C₁₅H₁₂O₆	S. baicalensis	[17]
13	5,6,7-Trihydroxy-4'-methoxyflavone	C₁₆H₁₂O₆	S. baicalensis	[15]
14	5,7-Dihydroxy-6-methoxyflavanon	C₁₆H₁₄O₅	S. baicalensis	[17]
15	5,7,4′-Trihydroxy-6-methoxyflavanone	C₁₆H₁₄O₆	S. baicalensis	[22]
16	5,7,4'-Trihydroxyflavanone	C₁₅H₁₂O₆	S. baicalensis	[13]
17	(2S)-5,7,8,4'-Tetrahydroxyflavanone 7-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside	C₂₁H₂₀O₁₂	S. baicalensis	[21]
18	(2S)-5,6,7,4'-Tetrahydroxyflavanone 7-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside	C₂₁H₂₀O₁₂	S. baicalensis	[21]
19	6-Hydroxyluteolin-7-O-glucuronide	C₂₁H₁₈O₁₃	S. baicalensis	[13]
20	7-Methoxychrysin	C₁₆H₁₄O₄	S. baicalensis	[16]
21	Apigenin	C₁₅H₁₀O₅	S. baicalensis, S. amoena, S. scordifolia, S. viscidula	[17,21−25]
22	Apigenin-4'-glucopyranside	C₂₁H₂₀O₁₀	S. baicalensis	[17]
23	Apigenin-6-C-glucoside-8-C-arabinoside	C₂₆H₂₈O₁₄	S. baicalensis	[13]
24	Apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranside	C₂₁H₂₀O₁₀	S. baicalensis	[17]
25	Apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide	C₂₁H₁₈O₁₁	S. baicalensis, S. amoena, S. scordifolia	[13,23,24]
26	Apigenin-7-O-methylglucuronide	C₂₂H₂₀O₁₁	S. baicalensis	[28]
27	Baicalein	C₁₅H₁₀O₅	S. baicalensis, S. amoena, S. scordifolia, S. viscidula	[22−25]
28	Baicalein-7-O-D-glucopyranside	C₂₁H₂₀O₁₀	S. baicalensis	[22]
29	Baicalin	C₂₁H₁₈O₁₁	S. baicalensis, S. amoena, S. scordifolia, S. viscidula	[16,23−25]
30	Carthamidin	C₁₅H₁₂O₆	S. baicalensis	[13,20]
31	Carthamidin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide	C₂₁H₂₀O₁₂	S. baicalensis	[22]
32	Chrysin	C₁₅H₁₀O₄	S. baicalensis, S. amoena, S. scordifolia	[13,21−24]
33	Chrysin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide	C₂₁H₂₀O₉	S. baicalensis, S. amoena	[23,29]
34	Dihydrobaicalin	C₂₁H₂₀O₁₁	S. baicalensis	[22,28]
35	Dihydrooroxylin A	C₂₁H₂₀O₁₁	S. baicalensis	[13]
36	Genkwanin	C₁₆H₁₂O₅	S. baicalensis	[16]
37	Isocarthamidin	C₁₅H₁₀O₆	S. baicalensis	[20,28]
38	Isocarthamidin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide	C₂₁H₂₀O₁₂	S. baicalensis	[28]
39	Isoschaftside	C₂₆H₂₈O₁₄	S. baicalensis	[13,16]
40	Isoscutellarein	C₁₅H₁₀O₆	S. baicalensis	[21,30]
41	Isoscutellarein 8-O-β-D-glucuronide	C₂₁H₁₈O₁₂	S. baicalensis	[21]
42	Kaempferol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C₂₁H₂₀O₁₁	S. baicalensis	[13,28]
43	Luteolin	C₁₅H₁₀O₆	S. baicalensis	[22,30]
44	Norwogonin-7-O-glucuronide	C₂₁H₁₈O₁₂	S. baicalensis, S. amoena	[13,17,23]
45	Oroxylin A	C₁₆H₁₂O₅	S. baicalensis, S. amoena	[17,23]
46	Oroxylin A-7-O-D-glucopyranside	C₂₂H₂₂O₁₀	S. baicalensis	[22,28]
47	Oroxylin A-7-O-β-D-glucuronide	C₂₂H₂₀O₁₁	S. baicalensis, S. amoena	[13,23]
48	Pinocembrin	C₁₆H₁₂O₅	S. baicalensis	[13]
49	Pinocembrin-7-O-glucuronide	C₂₁H₂₀O₁₁	S. baicalensis	[13,16,22]
50	Salvigenin	C₁₈H₁₆O₆	S. baicalensis	[21]
51	Scutellarein	C₁₅H₁₀O₆	S. baicalensis	[28]
52	Scutellarin	C₂₁H₁₈O₁₂	S. baicalensis, S. amoena, S. scordifolia, S. viscidula	[23−25,29]
53	Wogonin	C₁₆H₁₂O₅	S. baicalensis, S. amoena, S. scordifolia, S. viscidula	[21−25]
54	Wogonoside	C₂₂H₂₀O₁₁	S. baicalensis, S. viscidula	[13,25]

| Show Table

DownLoad: CSV

Figure 2. Chemical structure of flavonoids in HQT.

DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

In 1976, Takido et al.^[20] isolated two flavanone derivatives, carthamidin and isocarthamidin, for the first time as natural products from the leaves of S. baicalensis. Later, Yukinori et al.^[21] identified two new flavanones, (2S)-5,7,8,4'-tetrahydroxyflavanone 7-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside and (2S)-5,6,7,4'-tetrahydroxyflavanone 7-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside), in the leaves of S. baicalensis. Eight compounds of chrysin, wogonin, apigenin, salvigenin, scutellarein, isoscutellarein, apigenin 7-O-glucuronide, and isoscutellarein 8-O-glucuronide were also isolated. Wang et al.^[15] used column chromatography to isolate seven flavonoids (wogonin, chrysin, 5,6,7-trihydroxy-4'-methoxyflavone, carthamindin, isocarthamidin, scutellarein, and chrysin 7-O-β-D-glucuronide) from a water extract of the leaves of S. baicalensis. Liu et al.^[13] identified 21 flavonoids in the stems and leaves of S. baicalensis by HPLC-UV/MS and NMR, and found one flavonone (5,6,7,3',4'-Pentahydroxyflavone-7-O-glucuronide) was a new compound. Zhao^[17] firstly isolated 5,6,7,4′-tetrahydroxyflavanone 7,5,7-dihydroxy-6-methoxyflavanone, oroxylin A, 5,4′-dihydroxy-6,7,8,3′-tetramethoxyflavone, 5,2′-dihydroxy-6,7,8,3′-tetramethoxyflavone, 5,2′-dihydroxy-7,8,6′-trimethoxyflavone, 5,2′-dihydroxy-7,8-dimethoxyflavone, 5,2′-dihydroxy-6,7,8-trimethoxyflavone, apigenin 4'-β-D-glucopyranoside, and apigenin-7-β-D-glucopyranoside from the aerial parts of S. baicalensis. Ma^[22] firstly isolated 5,7,4'-trihydroxy-6-methoxyflavone, 5,4'-dihydroxy-6,7,3',5'-tetramethoxyflavone, from stems and leaves of S. baicalensis. Wang et al.^[16] isolated 5,4'-dihydroxy-7-methoxyflavanone, genkwanin, 7-methoxychrysin, 3',4',5,5',7-pentamethoxyflavone from 60% ethanol extracts for stems and leaves of S. baicalensis for the first time. Also, the compounds of carthamidin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide, oroxylin A-7-O-β-D--glucuronide, and chrysin were isolated from this plant for the first time．

The concentration of these chemical components in HQT varies depending on the plant part utilized. Employing the HPLC-DAD method, Shen et al.^[18] established that the aerial parts (stems, leaves, and flowers) of S. baicalensis are rich in flavonoids, resembling the roots in composition but exhibiting significant disparities in content. The contents of isocarthamidin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide (106.66 ± 22.68 mg/g), carthamidin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide (19.82 ± 11.17 mg/g), and isoscutellarein-8-O-β-D-glucuronide (3.10 ±1.73 mg/g) were the highest in leaves. The content of apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (18.1 ± 4.85 mg/g) and chrysin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide (9.82 ± 5.51 mg/g) were the highest in flowers. HQT has a high content proportion of flavone glycosides, which is closely related to the activity of HQT. The concentrations of the nine main flavonoids in HQT infusions were measured using HPLC. The content of isocarthamidin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide (52.19 ± 29.81 mg/g) was the highest; carthamidin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide (31.48 ± 6.82 mg/g), chrysin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide (10.65 ± 0.40 mg/g) and apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranside (5.39 ± 0.92 mg/g) were found at moderate levels in HQT samples. As for flavone aglycones, scutellarin (12.77 ± 1.14 mg/g), baicalin (1.88 ± 0.48 mg/g), isoscutellarein-8-O-β-D-glucuronide (2.84 ± 0.60 mg/g), wogonoside (0.23 ± 0.02 mg/g) and chrysin (0.03 ± 0.01 mg/g) has lower content in HQT^[6].

Although there are few studies on the chemical constituents of the aerial parts of S. amoena, S. scordifolia, and S. viscidula it has been shown that the compounds of the aerial parts are similar to S. baicalensis. The aerial parts of S. amoena contain the compounds of baicalein, baicalin, oroxylin A, oroxylin A-7-O-β-D-glucuronide, wogonin, chrysin, chrysin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide, norwogonin, 5,7-dihydroxy-6,8-dimethoxyflavone, scutellarin^[23]. Zhang et al.^[24] identified compounds of chrysin, wogonin, baicalein, apigenin, apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucoside, baicalin, and scutellarin in whole plants of S. scordifolia. The stems and leaves of S. viscidula all contain compounds of wogonoside, apigenin, baicalein, wogonin, baicalin, and scutellarin. The contents of baicalein, wogonoside, wogonin, and apigenin in the stem of S. viscidula were higher than those in the stem of S. baicalensis. In the leaves of the two species, the content of scutellarin was higher, while the content of other compounds was lower^[25]. The content of scutellarin in S. viscidula was stem (2.30%) > leaf (1.78%) > flowers (0.38%)^[26].

Essential oils

The aerial parts of S. baicalensis are rich in essential oils, and the taste of HQT is closely related to this. The flowers of S. baicalensis are thought to have a Concord grape aroma, while HQT has a bitter flavor with distinctive herbal notes. Extensive analysis has identified 145 components in the essential oil obtained from the aerial parts of S. baicalensis. These components span various chemical classes, such as alkanes, carboxylic acids, fatty acids, monoterpenes/oxygenated monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes triterpenoids and Vitamins (Supplemental Table S1), which have demonstrated their efficacy in combatting bacteria, reducing inflammation and inhibiting tumor growth^[27−31]. Among these, major constituents include germacrene D (5.4%−39.3%), β-caryophyllene (29.0%), caryophyllene (18.9%), eugenol (18.4%), caryophyllene (15.2%), caryophyllene oxide (13.9%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (11.6%), 5-en-3-stigmasterol (11.3%), carvacrol (9.3%), thymol (7.5%), vitamin E (7.4%), neophytadiene (7.3%), γ-elemene (6.2%), 1-octen-3-ol (6.1%), allyl alcohol (5.5%), bicyclogermacrene (4.8%), myristicin (4.7%), acetophenone (4.6%), α-amyrin (4.6%), β-amyrin (4.4%), germacrene d-4-ol (4.3%), spathulenol (4.2%), β-pinene (4.1%), α-humulen (4.0%), 1-vinyl-1-methyl-2-(1-methylvinyl)-4-(1-methylethylidene)-cyclohexane (4.0%) are found in the aerial parts of S. baicalensis from different places^[27−31].

Takeoka et al.^[27] identified 64 components in volatile components of S. baicalensis flowers by solid-phase microextraction and analyzed them by GC and GC-MS. These flowers were collected at San Francisco State University (USA). Among the flower volatiles, the content of β-caryophyllene, germacrene D, δ-cadinene, γ-muurolene, and γ-cadinene were more than 3%. The essential oil obtained from the stem of S. baicalensis is mainly composed of diphenylamine, 2,2-methylenebis (6-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol), bornyl acetate, β-caryophyllene, germacrene D and 1-octen-3-ol.^[32]. Gong et al.^[28] analyzed and identified the specific chemical constituents of the aerial parts of S. baicalensis by using GC-MS technology and identified 37 compounds in total, such as allyl alcohol, acetophenone, caryophyllene, α-humulene, germacrene D, and γ-elemene. The plant material was collected in the Qinling Mountains in China. Lu et al.^[29] found a big difference in essential oil components between the aerial and root of S. baicalensis from Kunming Botanical Garden, Yunnan Province (China). The aerial part of S. baicalensis mainly contained enols and sterols such as neophytadiene and vitamin E. However, it has the same compounds as the roots, such as nerolidol, hexadecanoic acid, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, squalene, stigmast-4-en-3-one, and partial alkanes. Recently, Wang et al.^[31] found the essential oil level of the aerial parts of S. baicalensis was 0.09% (v/w, based on fresh weight) while its density was 0.93 g/mL, and obtained 31 components accounting for 97.64% of the crude essential oil, including sesquiterpenoid, monoterpenoids, phenylpropanoids, and others. It is also reported that the major components of the essential oil from the aerial parts of S. baicalensis were myristicin, eugenol, caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, germacrene D, spathulenol, and β-pinene, with eugenol as the most abundant. The sample of the aerial parts were harvested from Tangshan City (China). The composition of S. baicalensis essential oils varies according to the plant part used, geographical location, and growing conditions.

Others

Zgórka & Hajnos^[33] identified the phenolic acid compounds of aerial parts of S. baicalensis by solid-phase extraction and high-speed countercurrent chromatography: p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, and caffeic acid. Chirikova & Olennikov^[34] found that the aerial part of S. baicalensis contains 11 kinds of saturated fatty acids and nine kinds of unsaturated fatty acids, among which the palmitic acid content is the highest. Chlorogenic acid, fernlic acid, protocatechuic acid, vanillic acid, rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, and p-coumaric acid were also detected.

Zhao ^[17] isolated four sterol compounds: β-sitosterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside, α-apinasterol, β-sitosterol, and four ester compounds: methoxyphaeophorbide, p-hydroxybenethyl ethanol hexadecanoic methyl ester, ethoxyphaeophorbide, and n-octadecanol, lutein from the aerial parts of S. baicalensis.

It is reported that flavonoids and diterpenes are the two main groups of active constituents in the genus Scutellaria. However, only one diterpene (scutebaicalin) was identified in the stems and leaves of S. baicalensis^[35].

By atomic absorption spectrophotometry, Yuan et al.^[36] determined the contents of 11 metal elements in different parts of S. baicalensis. It was found that the leaves and stems of S. baicalensis were rich in Mg, K, Cr, Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, and Pb. Meanwhile, Yan et al.^[37] developed an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry method and determined 23 kinds of inorganic elements in the stems and leaves of S. baicalensis from eight regions. Although there were no differences in the types of inorganic elements in the stems and leaves of S. baicalensis from the different areas, the content of these elements varied significantly. Among these elements, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Cr, Co, Ni, Sr, B, and Ni were essential human body elements. The content of Al (516.83 μg/g) and Fe (700.62 μg/g) was the highest, while the content of B (31.54 μg/g), Ti (23.10 μg/g), Mn (65.64 μg/g), Sr (62.27 μg/g), and Ba (89.68 μg/g) was relatively high.

Olennikov et al.^[38] studied the water-soluble polysaccharides from the aerial parts of S. baicalensis from Russia and found that the polysaccharides from S. baicalensis gradually accumulated before flowering and progressively decreased after flowering.

Yan et al.^[39] found that the stems and leaves of S. baicalensis were rich in amino acids, and there was no difference in the kinds of amino acids among different producing areas, but there was a significant difference in the contents of amino acids. The content of proline, threonine, glutamic acid, lysine, glutamine, and arginine was higher, and the content of methionine, hydroxyproline, and citrulline was low．

Functional properties

Several studies have focused on the functional properties of HQT, with increasing attention given to the aerial parts of S. baicalensis as the main raw material for HQT production. S. baicalensis stems and leaves flavonoids (SSF) are considered the functional components of HQT. Modern pharmacology has shown that the flavonoids extracted from the stem and leaf of S. baicalensis have been found to possess anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, antiviral, antipyretic and analgesic, anti-tumor, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, detoxification, myocardial ischemia protection, brain injury protection, and immunomodulatory effects. However, few studies have been conducted on the individual flavonoid compounds in the total flavonoid extract from S. baicalensis. Therefore, this paper aims to summarize and supplement the current research on the functional properties of HQT and its primary raw material (S. baicalensis) extract.

Anti-inflammatory activity

Injury and infection could lead to inflammation, which plays a key role in the accelerated pathogenesis of immune-mediated disease^[40]. Tong et al.^[41], Zhou et al.^[42], and Zhao et al.^[43] found that S. baicalensis stem-leaf total flavonoid (SSTF) could inhibit acute exudative inflammation caused by xylene, glacial acetic acid, and egg white and also have a significant inhibitory effect on chronic inflammatory of granulation tissue hyperplasia. Wang et al.^[44] observed the effect of SSTF on the aerocyst synovitis of the rat model and found that it could reduce capillary permeability, reduce the aggregation of neutrophils and basophils in tissues, reduce histamine, bradykinin, and other substances that increase vascular permeability, which is conducive to the recovery of vascular permeability in inflammation. Studies have shown that the SSTF significantly inhibits specific and non-specific inflammatory responses and can regulate the body's cellular and humoral immune functions. The mechanism of action is closely related to the effective reduction of capillary permeability, inhibition of PGE2 and NO synthesis in vivo, reduction of TNF-α expression, and reduction of inflammatory exudation^[45,46]. SSTF (200 mg/kg) could balance the ${\text{CD}^+_4}$ Tlymphocyte subsets Th1/Th2 cells and the related cytokines IL-10 and IFN-γ in the rheumatoid arthritis model^[47]. SSTF (17.5, 35 and 70 mg/kg for 38 d) could significantly improve the impairment of relearning ability and retention ability on memory impairment and nerve inflammation in chronic cerebral ischemia rats, which might be due to the inhibition of the proliferation of astrocyte and balanced the expression of the inflammatory factors in the brain^[48]. Besides, the extract of S. baicalensis stem-leaf shows anti-inflammation effects both in vitro and in vivo. In cultured macrophage cells (RAW 264.7), the extract of S. baicalensis stem-leaf showed a strong anti-inflammation effect, which inhibited the expression of IL-1β. Similarly, it suppressed the LPS-induced transcriptional activity mediated by NF-κB in fish aquaculture^[49]. S. baicalensis stems and leaves (3, 6, and 12g /kg, gavage for 7 d, once per day) have anti-inflammatory effects on 2% carrageenan-induced acute pleurisy in rats, and the mechanism of action may be related to the reduction of the production of inflammatory factors and the down-regulation of TRPV1 signaling protein^[50]. The combination of S. baicalensis stems- Polygonum cuspidatum (3.5, 7, and 14 g/kg, gavage for 7 d) has a protective effect on lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury rats, and its mechanism may be related to down-regulating the expression of TRPV1 and inhibiting the levels of TNF-α and IL-1β in inflammatory cells^[50]. It is also reported that S. baicalensis stem-leaf combined with Morus alba (4, 8, and 16 g/kg/d, gavage, 10 d) has a protective effect on rats with acute pneumonia induced by lipopolysaccharide, and the mechanism might be related to the reduction of inflammatory factors and the down-regulation of TRPV1 signaling pathway^[51]. Besides, the network pharmacology showed that S. baicalensis stem-leaf could prevent and control COVID-19 by intervening in 30 targets and 127 pathways, potentially preventing and treating inflammation caused by COVID-19^[52].

Based on the studies, S. baicalensis stem-leaf extract shows promising anti-inflammatory properties. These effects are likely mediated through a combination of factors, including the modulation of immune responses, reduction of inflammatory mediators, and potential interactions with signaling pathways like TRPV1. However, it's important to note that while these studies provide valuable insights, further research, including clinical trials, is needed to establish the full extent of its benefits and its potential for therapeutic applications in humans.

Anti-bacterial and antiviral activity

Scutellaria baicalensis stem and leaf aqueous extract exhibit different degrees of inhibition of 36 strains from 13 kinds of bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, alpha-hemolytic streptococcus, beta-hemolytic streptococcus and Escherichia coli. This shows that anti-bacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus is strong (MIC₅₀ 0.94 g/L, MBC 0.94 g/L). In vivo (217 mg/kg), it protects against the death of mice infected by Staphylococcus aureus and shows a certain dose-dependence^[53]. Zhang et al.^[54] found that the stem and leaves of S. baicalensis against Staphylococcus aureus and Shigella dysenteriae with MIC values of 1 and 4 mg/mL, respectively. Besides, it is reported that the water extract of the aerial part of S. baicalensis could inhibit the growth of several common pathogenic bacteria in aquacultures, such as Aeromonas hydrophila, Edwardsiella tarda, Vibrio alginolyticus and V. harveyi^[49].

Zhao et al.^[55] found that the active part of the stem and leaf of S. baicalensis could inhibit the cytopathic effect caused by 10 kinds of viruses such as Coxsackie B virus, influenza virus, parainfluenza virus, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, and herpes simplex virus. It is suggested that the active parts of the stem and leaf of S. baicalensis can be used for the prevention and treatment of influenza virus, parainfluenza virus, coxsackievirus, and other related infectious diseases.

These findings indicate that S. baicalensis stem and leaf extract possess anti-bacterial and antiviral properties, making it a potentially valuable natural resource for combating infections caused by various pathogens. However, while these results are promising, further research, including clinical trials, would be necessary to fully establish the effectiveness and safety of using S. baicalensis extract for preventing or treating bacterial and viral infections, including COVID-19.

Antipyretic and analgesic effect

In a series of studies, Tong et al.^[41] demonstrated that SSTF at a dosage of 20 mg/kg significantly reduced body temperature in rats with fever induced by subcutaneous injection of a 10% dry yeast suspension. Zhang et al.^[56] conducted research on the antipyretic effect of scutellarin, an extract from S. baicalensis stems and leaves, in febrile rabbits and observed an antipyretic substantial impact induced by pyrogen. Yang et al.^[57] conducted several animal experiments, where they discovered that intraperitoneal injection of effective doses of SSTF (42.2 and 84.4 mg/kg) exhibited a specific inhibitory effect on infectious fever in experimental animals. Moreover, intraperitoneal injection of appropriate SSTF doses (30.1, 60.3, and 120.6 mg/kg), as found in Yang et al.'s experiments^[58], effectively inhibited the pain response in experimental animals. Furthermore, Zhao et al.^[59] noted that SSTF exhibited a certain inhibitory effect on the pain response in experimental animals subjected to chemical and thermal stimulation.

These findings suggest that S. baicalensis stem and leaf extract may have antipyretic and analgesic effects, particularly its total flavonoid component. These effects could be beneficial for managing fever and providing pain relief. However, as with any natural remedy, further research, including controlled clinical trials in humans, is necessary to fully understand the effectiveness, safety, and optimal dosing of S. baicalensis extract for these purposes.

Neuroprotective effect

Amyloid protein (Aβ) has been widely recognized as the initiator of Alzheimer's disease (AD)^[60]. The SSTF can improve cognitive function and delay the process of dementia. SSTF has been found to exert neuroprotective effects in AD animal models through various mechanisms. Ye et al.^[61] demonstrated that oral administration of SSTF (50 mg/kg) could effectively improve cognitive function and reduce neuronal injury in Aβ_25-35-3s -induced memory deficit rats. The underlying mechanisms may involve inhibiting oxidative stress and decreasing gliosis^[62,63]. Furthermore, SSTF was shown to reduce Aβ-induced neuronal apoptosis by regulating apoptosis-related proteins Bax and Bcl-2^[64]. Subsequent studies further validated the neuroprotective effects of SSTF. Cheng et al.^[65] found that SSTF treatment inhibited neuronal apoptosis and modulated mitochondrial apoptosis pathway in composited Aβ rats. Ding & Shang^[66] found that the SSF improves neuroprotection and memory impairment in rats due to its inhibition of hyperphosphorylation of multilocus Tau protein in rat brains. SSTF has also been found to exert neurogenesis-promoting effects by regulating BDNF-ERK-CREB signaling^[12] and activating the PI3K-AKT-CREB pathway^[67].

In further studies, Ding et al.^[11] proposed that the effect of SSF on promoting neurogenesis and improving memory impairment may be related to the regulation of abnormal expression of Grb2, SOS1, Ras, ERK, and BDNF molecules in the BDNF-ERK-CREB signaling pathway. Zhang et al.^[68] found that SSF (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg) could significantly modulate okadaic-induced neuronal damage in rats, which provides a basis for evaluating SSF as a means to reduce tau hyperphosphorylation and Aβ expression in Alzheimer's disease. Cao et al.^[69] found that SSTF (100 mg/kg, 60 d) may alleviate tau hyperphosphorylation-induced neurotoxicity by coordinating the activity of kinases and phosphatase after a stroke in a vascular dementia rat model. Gao et al.^[70] demonstrated that the stems and leaves of S. baicalensis (SSF, 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg/d, 43 d) could inhibit the hyperphosphorylation of tau in rats' cerebral cortex and hippocampus induced by microinjection of okadaic acid, which may be related to the activities of protein kinase CDK5, PKA and GSK3β. Furthermore, Liu et al.^[67] demonstrated that SSF (35, 70, and 140 mg/kg/d, 43 d) improved composited Aβ-induced memory impairment and neurogenesis disorder in rats through activated the PI3K-AKT-CREB signaling pathway and up-regulated the mRNA and protein expression of TRKB, PI3K, AKT, CREB and IGF2. More recently, a new study demonstrated that SSF (35, 70, and 140 mg/kg) alleviated myelin sheath degeneration in composited Aβ rats, potentially modulating sphingomyelin metabolism^[71]. Collectively, these findings suggest that SSTF holds therapeutic potential for AD by targeting multiple Alzheimer's pathogenesis-related processes.

Li et al.^[72] confirmed that SSTF (5 mg/kg) could improve the behaviors and the numbers of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced Parkinson's disease in mice, and these beneficial activities appear to be associated with the reduction of the level of serum malondialdehyde.

These studies suggest that S. baicalensis stem and leaf extract have the potential to exert neuroprotective effects in various neurodegenerative conditions, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. These effects could be attributed to its ability to modulate oxidative stress, apoptosis, signaling pathways, and protein hyperphosphorylation. However, as with any potential therapeutic agent, further research is needed to establish the full extent of its benefits, optimal dosages, and mechanisms of action, as well as its potential applications in human patients.

Effects on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases

In recent years, ischemic cerebrovascular disease has seriously threatened human health. Cerebral ischemia is one of the leading causes of death. It can occur in focal or global ischemia, with most cases associated with ischemic stroke^[73]. Neuronal protection against oxidative damage has been proposed as a potential therapeutic strategy to avoid damage during ischemic stroke^[74]. It is reported that SSTF can reduce neuronal apoptosis and free radical damage caused by heart and brain ischemia. Zhao et al.^[75] have found that the pretreatment of SSTF (100 mg/kg/d) can protect the ischemia-reperfusion myocardium by enhancing the activity of the anti-oxidative enzyme, inhibiting lipid peroxidation and attenuating the oxygen-free radicals-mediated damage to the myocardium in rats. In further studies, Zhao et al.^[76] proposed that SSTF (50, 100, or 200 mg/kg/d, 7 d) pretreatment could alleviate the neuronal damage incurred by ischemia-reperfusion, demonstrating a neuroprotective effect in focal ischemia-reperfusion rat model, which may involve the prohibition of the apoptosis of the neurons. Yu et al.^[77] confirmed that SSTF (17.5, 35, and 70 mg/kg/d, 7 d) could attenuate cardiomyocyte apoptosis during ischemia reperfusion injury by down-regulating the protein expression of the JAK2 gene. Qin et al.^[78] found that SSF (17.5, 35, and 70 mg/kg/d, 38 d) can decrease the expression of the NMDAR in hippocampus, and increase the expression of VEGF in the cerebral cortex of chronic cerebral ischemia rats.

Focal cerebral ischemia-reperfusion can result in neuronal loss but strongly promotes activation and proliferation of hippocampal glial cells. Losing hippocampal neurons is considered one of the basic pathological mechanisms of cognitive impairment^[79]. Zhao et al.^[79] found that the pretreatment with SSTF (100 and 200 mg/kg) could improve neurological function after focal cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury, with preventive and protective effects. Shang et al. found flavonoids from S. baicalensis (35−140 mg/kg) could attenuate neuron injury and improve learning and memory behavior in rats with cerebral ischemia/reperfusion^[80]. In further studies, Kong et al.^[81] found that the mechanisms of the protective effects on the brain against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury of SSTF may involve decreasing the content of brain water, increasing microvascular recanalization, reducing the apoptosis of hippocampal neurons, and attenuating free radical damage. Bai et al.^[82] proposed that SSTF (100 mg/kg/d, 7 d) could protect the neurological function in rats following I/R injury by alleviating the damage to the ultrastructure of cerebral cortex neurons and synapse. Yan et al.^[83] found that SSTF (100 mg/kg/d, 7 d) pretreatment can exert preventive, protective effects on cerebral tissue by relieving brain edema, decreasing neural damage, promoting microvascular repatency, and increasing enzyme activity. It has been reported that the SSTF may protect neurons and their synaptic structures in multiple ways, but whether this mechanism enhances the resistance of neurons to damage or increases the repair function remains to be further explored.

Essential hypertension is a common chronic cardiovascular disease, which can lead to multiple target organ damage, such as heart, brain, and blood vessels. It is a risk factor for coronary heart disease, heart failure, and other cardiovascular diseases. It is reported that SSTF (17.5, 35.0, and 70 0 mg/kg, 8 weeks) can inhibit myocardial remodeling in primary hypertensive rats, and the medium dose exerts the best inhibitory effect, and the mechanism may be related to inflammatory response induced by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway^[84].

S. baicalensis stem and leaf extract have the potential to provide neuroprotective effects in conditions related to ischemic cerebrovascular disease and hypertension. Its ability to modulate oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptotic pathways appears to contribute to its beneficial effects. However, further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms and optimal usage of SSTF for these therapeutic purposes.

Anti-aging effects

Aging is associated with the deterioration of physiological function and the decline of cognitive ability^[85]. It is reported that the alcohol extracts from roots, stems, leaves, and flowers of S. baicalensis (400 mg/kg, 7 weeks) could regulate the content of differential metabolites in urine samples of D-gal-induced aging-model rats to different degrees and play a certain role in improving the metabolic disorders of aging rats^[7]. A further study investigated the anti-aging effects and potential mechanisms of S. baicalensis leaves and flower extract. S. baicalensis leaves (400 and 800 mg/kg, 7 weeks) have an anti-aging effect, which can improve the acquired alopecia, slow response, and other characteristics of aging rats, increase the spontaneous activity of aging rats, and reduce the damage of lipid peroxidation and glycosylation induced by D-galactose^[86]. The S. baicalensis flowers extract (400 and 800 mg/kg, 7 weeks) could effectively reverse the cognitive decline and oxidative stress injury and alleviate liver pathological abnormalities in the D -galactose-induced aging rats, which are involved in the glutamine-glutamate metabolic pathway^[85].

S. baicalensis extracts, particularly those from leaves and flowers, may have anti-aging properties by regulating metabolic disorders, improving cognitive function, reducing oxidative stress, and alleviating aging-related physiological abnormalities. However, further research is necessary to fully understand the mechanisms underlying these effects and to determine the potential of these extracts for human applications in addressing age-related issues.

Others

The SSTF (200 mg/kg d, 35 d) can reduce the joint damage of collagen-induced arthritis mice and balance the ${\text{CD}^+_4}$ T lymphocyte subsets Th17 and Treg cells^[87]． Besides, on the multiple sclerosis model, the SSTF (100, 200 mg/kg d, 16 d) displayed a protective effect on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis rats through a balance of the ${\text{CD}^+_4}$ Tlymphocyte subsets Th17 and Treg cells^[88]. Zhang et al.^[89] have found that SSTF attenuated EAE disease severity, accompanied by enhanced Treg frequency and level of Treg-associated cytokines (IL-10 and TGF-β), as well as downregulated Th17 frequency and expression of Th17-related cytokines (IL-17 and IL-23).

It is reported that the essential oils from the aerial parts of S. baicalensis showed toxicity against booklice (Liposcelis bostrychophila) with an LC50 of 141.37 μg/cm². The components of myristate, caryophyllene, eugenol, and caryophyllene oxide displayed dramatic toxicity against the L. bostrychophila, with LC₅₀ values of 290.34, 104.32, 85.75, and 21.13 μg/cm², respectively^[31].

Guo & Xu^[90] have found that SSTF could inhibit the proliferation of Hela cells obviously (p< 0.01). Tang et al.^[10] have found that SSTF could play an anti-colon cancer role by up-regulated the expressions of Cleaved Caspase-3 and the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 (p < 0.05 and 0.01) and significantly down-regulated the expressions of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in HCT116 cells (p < 0.05 and 0.01). Recently, Shen et al.^[6] studied the chemopreventive effects of HQT against AOM-induced preneoplastic colonic aberrant crypt foci in rats and found HQT inhibits AOM-induced aberrant crypt foci formation by modulating the gut microbiota composition, inhibiting inflammation and improving metabolomic disorders.

Cardiovascular disease is one of the most important threats to human health. Hyperlipidemia is a major risk factor for atherosclerosis, which can cause various cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Different doses of SSTF (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) can effectively reduce the body weight increase of rats with hypertriglyceridemia, reduce the serum levels of triglyceride(TG), total cholesterol(TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), which indicate that SSTF has the effect of regulating blood lipid^[91].

Oxidative stress is important in developing tissue damage in several human diseases^[92]. The antioxidant capacities of separated organs (flower, leaf, stem, and root) of S. baicalensis were conducted by DPPH, ABTS+, and RP methods, respectively. The results showed that the antioxidant activity of the root (66.9 ± 0.3, 121.6 ± 0.5, and 80.2 ± 0.4 μg/mL) was the highest, followed by the leaf (68.4 ± 1.3, 128.2 ± 2.1, and 135.8 ± 2.0 μg/mL), stem (127.8 ± 3.1, 199.2 ± 1.7, and 208.2 ± 8.3 μg/mL) and flower (129.8 ± 6.3, 285.7 ± 4.7, and 380.3 ± 14.2 μg/mL)^[93]. The antioxidant activities of the extracts of the aerial part of S. baicalensis and separated organs were conducted by DPPH assay and reducing power method with the antioxidant ability 7.73–8.83 mg TE/g DW and 51.48–306.09 mg TE/g DW, respectively. The content of total polyphenols and total flavonoids were significantly positively correlated with the reducing power^[94]. Liu et al.^[95] found that the flavonoids extracted from the stems and leaves of S. baicalensis (SSF, 18.98, 37.36, and 75.92 μg/mL) could protect rat cortical neurons against H₂O₂-induced oxidative injury in a dose-dependent manner. Cao et al. found that SSTF could alleviate the damage of human umbilical vascular endothelial cells injured by H₂O₂ and reduce their apoptosis, which may be related to the increasing level of Bcl-2^[96].

Preventive treatment with SSTF (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) could significantly inhibit the blood glucose increase induced by alloxan in mice, and SSTF treatment could reduce the blood glucose level in diabetic mice. Both the prevention group and the treatment group could increase the activity of serum superoxide dismutase and decrease the content of malondialdehyde^[97]. Liu et al.^[98] found that SSTF (75 and 150 mg/kg) could significantly reduce blood glucose and blood lipid and improve insulin resistance in type 2 diabetic rats with hyperlipidemia.

Yang et al.^[99] found that SSTF (35 mg/kg/d, 8 weeks) could resist hepatic fibrosis by inhibiting the expression of α-smooth muscle actin in Hepatic Stellate Cells. In vivo, it is reported that SSTF (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) could significantly reduce alanine transaminase activities in serum, increase the expression of superoxide dismutase and reduce the content of malondialdehyde in acute hepatic injury mice induced by carbon tetrachloride and ethanol^[100].

These findings suggest that S. baicalensis stem and leaf extract hold promise in promoting various aspects of health, including immune modulation, antioxidant activity, anti-tumor effects, cardiovascular health, oxidative stress protection, and more. However, further research, including clinical studies, is necessary to better understand the full therapeutic potential and safety of these effects in human applications.

Safety issues

Flavonoids are considered the main active components in HQT. As the active substance basis of HQT, the safety of SSTF has also been investigated. After 90 d of oral administration of SSTF (0.5, 1, and 2 g/kg) to rats, no abnormal changes were observed in all indexes, and no delayed toxic reactions or obvious toxic reactions were observed, indicating that the toxicity of SSTF is low^[101]. The LD₅₀ value of SSTF was 14.87 g/kg is equivalent to 68.5 times the maximum dose in the pharmacodynamic test of mice, and the experiment confirms the safety of oral administration of the SSTF. Intraperitoneal injection of SST showed certain toxicity in mice, with an LD₅₀ value of 732.11 mg/kg^[102]. Liu et al.^[103] conducted a systematic safety assessment experiment on the aqueous extract of S. baicalensis stem and leaves based on the China National Standard 'Guidelines for the Safety Evaluation of Food Toxicology (GB15193-2014)'. The results indicated that S. baicalensis stem and leaves are non-toxic, non-teratogenic, and non-mutagenic. Acute toxicity tests in mice revealed a Maximum Tolerated Dose of 15.0 g/kg. A 90-d feeding trial showed no changes in toxicological damage in animals, even at a high dosage of 8.333 g/kg (equivalent to 100 times the recommended human daily intake), suggesting the safety and non-toxicity of consuming S. baicalensis stem and leaves. In addition, HQT has long been used in folklore, and no toxicity has been reported.

These findings collectively indicate that HQT is generally safe for consumption. However, as with any herbal product, it's important to follow recommended dosages and consult healthcare professionals, especially for individuals with pre-existing health conditions or medications.

Conclusions and future perspectives

In recent years, HQT, a non-Camellia tea with a long history in China, has attracted attention due to its diverse pharmacological activities. Among various Scutellaria species, S. baicalensis is the most extensively studied and cultivated source for HQT. The aerial parts, including flowers, stems, and leaves, serve as the principal source of HQT preparation. HQT are rich in flavonoids and volatile components with various beneficial effects. To date, about 295 compounds have been identified from HQT, including approximately 54 flavonoid compounds and 145 volatile components identified online. The current research on the activity of HQT primarily focuses on flavonoid compounds, with limited studies on the larger quantity of volatile oil compounds.

Additionally, the processing and brewing techniques used to prepare HQT may influence the bioactivity of its flavonoid content, although few studies have investigated this. More research is necessary to optimize the processing and brewing techniques to maximize the health benefits of HQT. Comparative studies reveal that the aerial parts of S. baicalensis, while sharing similarities with the roots, contain varying flavonoid compositions. Limited research on S. scordifolia, S. amoena, and S. viscidula, indicates the presence of comparable flavonoid compounds in their aerial parts. Although individual flavonoids like baicalin, wogonin, and scutellarin have demonstrated various therapeutic properties, it is essential to consider the synergistic effects of these compounds when consumed together in the form of tea. These findings contribute to laying the groundwork for quality assessment of HQT and offer insights into potential health benefits.

HQT is mainly derived from the aerial parts of S. baicalensis. Recent studies have increasingly recognized the pharmacological value of the aerial parts of S. baicalensis. Preliminary pharmacological studies have shown that the aerial parts of S. baicalensis may possess beneficial activities in antioxidant, anti-tumor, antiviral, anti-bacterial, protection of ischemia-reperfusion injured neural function, neuroprotective effects against brain injury, and blood lipid regulation. These findings suggest that the value of using HQT may be attributed to these pharmacological activities. Although HQT is generally safe for consumption, further investigation is required to understand its safety profile, particularly in special populations such as pregnant or lactating women, children, and individuals with pre-existing medical conditions. Additionally, potential interactions between the flavonoids in HQT and conventional medications must be examined to ensure their safe and effective use with pharmaceutical treatments. In addition, although the safe dose of HQT on rodents has been studied, the safe dose for humans has yet to be determined.

In conclusion, these initial research results support the potential health benefits of HQT and encourage more in-depth studies on its raw materials. Further studies are necessary to elucidate the synergistic effects of the flavonoids in HQT, optimize the processing and brewing techniques for maximum bioactivity, and investigate the safety profile and potential interactions with conventional medications. A comprehensive understanding of HQT will contribute to developing evidence-based recommendations for promoting health and well-being.

Author contributions

The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: Conceptualization and writing: Quan Y, Li Z, Meng X, Li P, Shen J; Figure and table modification: Quan Y, Li Z, Meng X, Li P; review and editing: Wang Y, He C, Shen J. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

This research was funded by the Shandong Provincial Natural Science Foundation, China (ZR2022QH147, ZR2022QH165) and the Innovation Team and Talents Cultivation Program of National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine (No. ZYYCXTD-D-202005).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Supplementary information

Supplemental Table S1 Aggregated (Agg.), regular (Reg.), or random (Ran.) distribution (Dist.) of the loss sources on 48 Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae) saplings.
Supplemental Table S2 Aggregated (Agg.), regular (Reg.), or random (Ran.) distribution (Dist.) of the solution sources on 48 Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae) saplings.
Supplemental Table S3 Simple regression equations of damage per loss source (LS) and reduction or increase of abundance or damage (Da.) of LS per solution source (SS) on 48 Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae) saplings.

Rights and permissions
Copyright: © 2024 by the author(s). Published by Maximum Academic Press, Fayetteville, GA. This article is an open access article distributed under Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

References

[1]	Quigley DTG, Gainey PA, Easton C. 2017. Soapberry Sapindus sp. (Sapindaceae: Sapindoideae): Drift endocarps from UK waters. New Journal of Botany 7:160−64 doi: 10.1080/20423489.2017.1408187 CrossRef Google Scholar
[2]	Grisi PU, Ranal MA, Gualtieri SCJ, Santana DG. 2012. Allelopathic potential of Sapindus saponaria L. leaves in the control of weeds. Acta Scientiarum-Agronomy 34:1−9 doi: 10.4025/actasciagron.v34i1.11598 CrossRef Google Scholar
[3]	Rodrigues RR, Martins SV, De Barros LC. 2004. Tropical Rain Forest regeneration in an area degraded by mining in Mato Grosso State, Brazil. Forest Ecology and Management 190:323−33 doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2003.10.023 CrossRef Google Scholar
[4]	Rodrigues AA, Vasconcelos Filho SC, Müller C, Rodrigues DA, Mendes GC, et al. 2018. Sapindus saponaria bioindicator potential concerning potassium fluoride exposure by simulated rainfall: Anatomical and physiological traits. Ecological Indicators 89:552−58 doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.02.043 CrossRef Google Scholar
[5]	Torres-Rodríguez S, Díaz-Triana JE, Villota A, Gómez W, Avella-MA. 2019. Ecological diagnostics, formulation and implementation of strategies for the restoration of an interandean dry tropical forest (Huila, Colombia). Caldasia 41:42−59 doi: 10.15446/caldasia.v41n1.71275 CrossRef Google Scholar
[6]	Schad AN, Dick GO, Dodd LL. 2017. Seed germination methods of the Texas Northern Blackland Prairie ecotype of Sapindus saponaria L. var. drummondii (Hook. and Arn.) L.D. Benson (Sapindaceae). Native Plants Journal 18:271−76 doi: 10.3368/npj.18.3.271 CrossRef Google Scholar
[7]	Tsuzuki JK, Svidzinski TIE, Shinobu CS, Silva LFA, Rodrigues-Filho E, et al. 2007. Antifungal activity of the extracts and saponins from Sapindus saponaria L. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 79:577−83 doi: 10.1590/S0001-37652007000400002 CrossRef Google Scholar
[8]	He X, Han Y, Wu S. 2018. A new species of Leptopulvinaria Kanda from China, with a key to species (Hemiptera, Coccomorpha, Coccidae). Zookeys 781:59−66 doi: 10.3897/zookeys.781.25713 CrossRef Google Scholar
[9]	Demolin-Leite GL. 2021. Importance indice: loss estimates and solution effectiveness on production. Cuban Journal of Agricultural Science 55:1−7 http://scielo.sld.cu/pdf/cjas/v55n2/2079-3480-cjas-55-02-e10.pdf.
[10]	Demolin-Leite GL. 2024. Percentage of importance indice-production unknown: loss and solution sources identification on system. Brazilian Journal of Biology 84:e253218 doi: 10.1590/1519-6984.253218 CrossRef Google Scholar
[11]	Alvares CA, Stape JL, Sentelhas PC, Gonçalves JLM, Sparovek G. 2013. Köppen's climate classification map for Brazil. Meteorologische Zeitschrift 22:711−28 doi: 10.1127/0941-2948/2013/0507 CrossRef Google Scholar
[12]	Silva JL, Demolin Leite GL, de Souza Tavares W, Souza Silva FW, Sampaio RA, et al. 2020. Diversity of arthropods on Acacia mangium (Fabaceae) and production of this plant with dehydrated sewage sludge in degraded area. Royal Society Open Science 7:e191196 doi: 10.1098/rsos.191196 CrossRef Google Scholar
[13]	Demolin-Leite GL, Azevedo AM. 2022. 'IIProductionUnknown': Analyzing Data Through of Percentage of Importance Indice (Production Unknown) and Its Derivations. Manual Package. pp. 1−18. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=IIProductionUnknown
[14]	Nunes GDS, Medeiros AC, Araujo EL, Nogueira CHF, Sombra KDDS. 2013. Resistance of melon accessions to leafminer Liriomyza spp. (Diptera: Agromyzidae). Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura 35:746−54 doi: 10.1590/S0100-29452013000300011 CrossRef Google Scholar
[15]	Ferreira ECB, Freitas MTDS, Sombra KDDS, Siqueira HAAD, Araujo ELD, et al. 2017. Molecular identification of Liriomyza sp. in the northeast and southeast regions of Brazil. Revista Caatinga 30:892−900 doi: 10.1590/1983-21252017v30n409rc CrossRef Google Scholar
[16]	Mcgovern RJ, Koh LH, To-Anun C, Wong SM. 2016. Reduced incidence of tomato yellow leaf curl virus and leafminer in a tomato cultivar in northern Thailand. Crop Protection 89:273−77 doi: 10.1016/j.cropro.2016.07.018 CrossRef Google Scholar
[17]	Fernandes FL, Picanço MC, De Sena FME, Xavier VM, Martins JC, et al. 2010. Natural biological control of pests and ecological interactions with predators and parasitoids in bean crop. Bioscience Journal 26:6−14 Google Scholar
[18]	Carvalho JCN, Silva FWS, Leite GLD, Azevedo AM, Teixeira GL, et al. 2020. Does fertilization with dehydrated sewage sludge affect Terminalia argentea (Combretaceae) and associated arthropods community in a degraded area? Scientific Reports 10:e11811 doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-68747-z CrossRef Google Scholar
[19]	Zhang W, Mcauslane HJ, Schuster DJ. 2004. Repellency of ginger oil to Bemisia argentifolii (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on tomato. Journal of Economic Entomology 97:1310−18 doi: 10.1093/jee/97.4.1310 CrossRef Google Scholar
[20]	Mansaray A, Sundufu AJ. 2009. Oviposition, development and survivorship of the sweetpotato whitefly Bemisia tabaci on soybean, Glycine max, and the garden bean, Phaseolus vulgaris. Journal of Insect Science 9:1 doi: 10.1673/031.009.0101 CrossRef Google Scholar
[21]	Kim S, Jung M, Song YJ, Kang C, Kim BY, et al. 2017. Evaluating the potential of the extract of Perilla sp. as a natural insecticide for Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) on sweet peppers. Entomological Research 47:208−16 doi: 10.1111/1748-5967.12211 CrossRef Google Scholar
[22]	Felicio TNP, Costa TL, Sarmento RA, Ramos RS, Pereira PS, et al. 2019. Surrounding vegetation, climatic elements, and predators affect the spatial dynamics of Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in commercial melon fields. Journal of Economic Entomology 112:2774−81 doi: 10.1093/jee/toz181 CrossRef Google Scholar
[23]	Da Costa SSD, Leite GLD, Silva FWS, Santos JB, Azevedo AM, et al. 2021. Arthropods on Terminalia argentea (Combretaceae) fertlized with sewage sludge. Florida Entomologist 104:131−35 doi: 10.1653/024.104.0209 CrossRef Google Scholar
[24]	De Souza GF, Leite GLD, Silva FWS, Silva JL, Sampaio RA, et al. 2021. Bottom-up effects on arthropod communities in Platycyamus regnellii (Fabaceae) fertilized with dehydrated sewage sludge. Revista Colombiana de Entomologia 47:e8943 doi: 10.25100/socolen.v47i1.8943 CrossRef Google Scholar
[25]	Silva JL, Leite GLD, Guanabens REM, Azevedo AM, Fernandes GW, et al. 2021. Fertilization with dehydrated sewage sludge affects the phytophagous Hemiptera, tending ants, and Sternorryncha predators on Acacia mangium (Fabaceae). Annals of Applied Biology 179:345−53 doi: 10.1111/aab.12706 CrossRef Google Scholar
[26]	Zanuncio-Junior JS, Fornazier MJ, Dos Martins DS, Chamorro-Rengifo J, Queiróz RB, et al. 2017. Meroncidius intermedius (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae): a threat to Brazilian banana. Florida Entomologist 100:669−71 doi: 10.1653/024.100.0329 CrossRef Google Scholar
[27]	Mota MVS, Demolin-Leite GL, Guanabens PFS, Teixeira GL, Soares MA, et al. 2023. Chewing insects, pollinators, and predators on Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Beth (Fabales: Fabaceae) plants fertilized with dehydrated sewage sludge. Brazilian Journal of Biology 83:e248305 doi: 10.1590/1519-6984.248305 CrossRef Google Scholar
[28]	Farouk S, Osman MA. 2011. The effect of plant defense elicitors on common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) growth and yield in absence or presence of spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) infestation. Journal of Stress Physiology & Biochemistry 7:5−22 Google Scholar
[29]	Murungi LK, Salifu D, Masinde P, Wesonga J, Nyende A, et al. 2014. Effects of the invasive tomato red spider mite (Acari: Tetranychidae) on growth and leaf yield of African nightshades. Crop Protection 59:57−62 doi: 10.1016/j.cropro.2014.02.001 CrossRef Google Scholar
[30]	Reichert MB, Silva GL, Rocha MDS, Johann L, Ferla NJ. 2014. Mite fauna (Acari) in soybean agroecosystem in the northwestern region of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. Systematic and Applied Acarology 19:123−36 doi: 10.11158/saa.19.2.2 CrossRef Google Scholar
[31]	Leite GLD, Veloso RVS, Matioli AL, Feres CIMA, Soares MA, et al. 2021. Habitat complexity and mite population on Caryocar brasiliense trees. Acta Scientiarum-Agronnomy 43:e50164 doi: 10.4025/actasciagron.v43i1.50164 CrossRef Google Scholar
[32]	Leite GLD, Veloso RVS, Matioli AL, Soares MA, Lemes PG. 2022. Seasonal mite population distribution on Caryocar brasiliense trees in the Cerrado domain. Brazilian Journal of Biology 82:e236355 doi: 10.1590/1519-6984.236355 CrossRef Google Scholar
[33]	Sarwar M. 2015. Mites (Acarina) as vectors of plant pathogens and relation of these pests to plant diseases. Agricultural and Biological Sciences Journal 1:150−56 Google Scholar
[34]	Poderoso JCM, Da Costa MKM, Correia-Oliveira, ME, Dantas PC, Zanuncio JC, et al. 2013. Occurrence of Tropidacris collaris (Orthoptera; Acridoidea; Romaleidae) damaging Casuarina glauca (Casuarinaceae) plants in the municipality of Central Bahia, Brazil. Florida Entomologist 96:268−69 doi: 10.1653/024.096.0143 CrossRef Google Scholar
[35]	Damascena JG, Leite GLD, Silva FWS, Soares MA, Guañabens REM, et al. 2017. Spatial distribution of phytophagous insects, natural enemies, and pollinators on Leucaena leucocephala (Fabales: Fabaceae) trees in the Cerrado. Florida Entomologist 100:558−65 doi: 10.1653/024.100.0311 CrossRef Google Scholar
[36]	Leite GLD, Picanço M, Zanuncio JC, Moreira MD, Jham GN. 2011. Hosting capacity of horticultural plants for insect pests in Brazil. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research 71:383−89 doi: 10.4067/S0718-58392011000300006 CrossRef Google Scholar
[37]	Fernandes FS, Ramalho FS, Malaquias JB, Godoy WAC, Santos BDB. 2015. Interspecific associations between Cycloneda sanguinea and two aphid species (Aphis gossypii and Hyadaphis foeniculi) in sole-crop and fennel-cotton intercropping systems. Plos ONE 10:e0131449 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131449 CrossRef Google Scholar
[38]	Fernandes MED, Zanuncio JC, Plata-Rueda A, Soares WS, Coelho RR, Fernandes FL. 2019. Quantification of prey consumption by the predators Chauliognathus flavipes (Coleoptera: Cantharidae), Cycloneda sanguinea (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), and Orius insidiosus (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae). Florida Entomologist 102:231−33 doi: 10.1653/024.102.0138 CrossRef Google Scholar
[39]	Leite GLD, Veloso RVS, Zanuncio JC, Almeida CIM, Ferreira PSF, Fernandes GW, Soares MA. 2012a. Habitat complexity and Caryocar brasiliense herbivores (Insecta; Arachnida; Araneae). Florida Entomologist 95:819−30 doi: 10.1653/024.095.0402 CrossRef Google Scholar
[40]	Gonthier DJ, Ennis KK, Philpott SM, Vandermeer J, Perfecto I. 2013. Ants defend coffee from berry borer colonization. BioControl 58:815−20 doi: 10.1007/s10526-013-9541-z CrossRef Google Scholar
[41]	Fagundes R, Dáttilo W, Ribeiro SP, Rico-Gray V, Jordano P, Del-Claro K. 2017. Differences among ant species in plant protection are related to production of extrafloral nectar and degree of leaf herbivory. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 122:71−83 doi: 10.1093/biolinnean/blx059 CrossRef Google Scholar
[42]	Dassou AG, Vodouhé SD, Bokonon-Ganta A, Goergen G, Chailleux A, Dansi A, Carval D, Tixier P. 2019. Associated cultivated plants in tomato cropping systems structure arthropod communities and increase the Helicoverpa armigera regulation. Bulletin of Entomological Research 109:733−40 doi: 10.1017/S0007485319000117 CrossRef Google Scholar
[43]	Sanchez A. 2015. Fidelity and promiscuity in an ant-plant mutualism: A case study of Triplaris and Pseudomyrmex. PLoS ONE 10:e0143535 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143535 CrossRef Google Scholar
[44]	Novgorodova TA. 2015. Organization of honeydew collection by foragers of different species of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): Effect of colony size and species specificity. European Journal of Entomology 112:688−97 doi: 10.14411/eje.2015.077 CrossRef Google Scholar
[45]	Sanchez JA, López-Gallego E, La-Spina M. 2020. The impact of ant mutualistic and antagonistic interactions on the population dynamics of sap-sucking hemipterans in pear orchards. Pest Management Science 76:1422−34 doi: 10.1002/ps.5655 CrossRef Google Scholar
[46]	Karami-Jamour T, Mirmoayedi A, Zamani A, Khajehzadeh Y. 2018. The impact of ant attendance on protecting Aphis gossypii against two aphidophagous predators and it's role on the intraguild predation between them. Journal of Insect Behavior 31:222−39 doi: 10.1007/s10905-018-9688-7 CrossRef Google Scholar
[47]	Tong HJ, Ao Y, Li ZH, Wang Y, Jiang MX. 2019. Invasion biology of the cotton mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley: Current knowledge and future directions. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 18:758−70 doi: 10.1016/S2095-3119(18)61972-0 CrossRef Google Scholar
[48]	Sagata K, Gibb H. 2016. The effect of temperature increases on an ant-Hemiptera-plant interaction. PLoS ONE 11:e0155131 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155131 CrossRef Google Scholar

About this article

Cite this article

Demolin-Leite GL. 2024. A preliminary study on the occurrence and significance of phytophagous arthropods and natural enemies on Sapindus saponaria saplings. Technology in Agronomy 4: e004 doi: 10.48130/tia-0024-0001

Demolin-Leite GL. 2024. A preliminary study on the occurrence and significance of phytophagous arthropods and natural enemies on Sapindus saponaria saplings. Technology in Agronomy 4: e004 doi: 10.48130/tia-0024-0001

Tables(3)

Download PDF

Article Metrics

Article views(2349) PDF downloads(313)

Other Articles By Authors

on this site
- Germano Leão Demolin-Leite
on Google Scholar
- Germano Leão Demolin-Leite

HTML

Introduction

Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae) is widely distributed throughout the Americas^[1], attaining heights of up to eight meters^[2]. In Brazil, it is ubiquitously present across all regions^[3]. Renowned for its ecological significance, this species is extensively employed for the reclamation of degraded ecosystems globally^[4−6]. Additionally, the fruits of S. saponaria find utility in Brazilian folk medicine, primarily for their saponin content, while its seeds and wood are utilized in the creation of jewelry and baskets, respectively^[2,7]. Despite the economic importance of this plant, the knowledge about its associated arthropods remains largely deficient. A recent discovery in China identified a novel species, Leptopulvinaria sapinda (Hemiptera: Coccidae), as an assailant of S. saponaria^[8]. However, comprehensive insights into the arthropod fauna associated with this plant are still lacking. Notably, insects and mites pose potential threats to S. saponaria saplings, and the mitigating influence of spiders on defoliation caused by beetles is recognized. The intricate interactions between the plant and its arthropod inhabitants warrant further investigation to elucidate the ecological dynamics and potential implications for the sustainability of S. saponaria populations.

The aim of this investigation was to assess the population dynamics of phytophagous insects, mites, and natural enemies associated with 48 S. saponaria saplings over a two-year period. The quantification and comparison of these arthropod species were conducted utilizing the Importance Index-Production Unknown (% I.I.-P.U.), a metric derived as a percentage from the Importance Index (I.I.)^[9,10]. This methodology enabled the classification and ranking of the arthropods based on their relative importance to the studied S. saponaria saplings, providing a quantitative basis for evaluating their ecological significance within the examined timeframe.

Materials and methods

This research was undertaken at the 'Instituto de Ciências Agrárias da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICA/UFMG)', Brazil, spanning the period from April 2015 to March 2017. For comprehensive information regarding climate classification, latitude, longitude, altitude, and soil characteristics, please refer to the supplementary details provided in Alvares et al.^[11] & Silva et al.^[12].

Comprehensive information pertaining to seedling production, the substrate employed, field planting procedures, fertilization practices, irrigation protocols, and other relevant details can be found in Silva et al.^[12]. The quantification of defoliation percentage caused by insects, the assignment of damage scores resulting from sap-sucking insects and mites, and the evaluation of arthropod populations are elaborated upon in the study by Demolin-Leite^[10].

Each replication are the total individuals collected on 12 leaves (three heights and four sides of the sapling) for 24 months. The distribution type (aggregated, random, or regular) for the lost source (LS) or solution source (SS) was defined by the Chi-square test using the R-package 'IIProductionUnknown'^[13] (Supplemental Table S1 & S2). The data were subjected to simple regression analysis, and the parameters were all significant (p < 0.05) using the R-package 'IIProductionUnknown'^[13] (Supplemental Table S3). Simple equations were selected by observing the criteria: (1) data distribution in the figures (linear or quadratic response), (2) the parameters used in these regressions were the most significant (p < 0.05), (3) p < 0.05 and F of the Analysis of Variance of these regressions, and iv) the coefficient of determination of these equations (R²). Only L.S. and SS with p < 0.05 were shown in Supplemental Table S1−S3. The data above were used in the Percentage of Importance Index-Production Unknown (% I.I.-P.U.).

Percentage of Importance Index-Production Unknown (% I.I.-P.U.)^[10] is:

% I.I.-P.U. = [(ks₁ × c₁ × ds₁)/Σ(ks₁ × c₁ × ds₁) + (ks₂ × c₂ × ds₂) + (ks_n × c_n × ds_n)] × 100^[9],

where, i) the key source (ks) is: ks = damage (non-percentage) (Da.)/total n of the LS on the samples or ks = reduction of the total n. of LS (RLS)/total n. of the SS on the samples^[10]. Where Da. or RLS = R² × (1 − P), when it is of the first degree, or (R² × (1 − P)) × (β₂/β₁), when it is of the second degree, where R² = determination coefficient and P = significance of ANOVA, β₁ = regression coefficient, and β₂ = regression coefficient (variable²), of the simple regression equation of the loss source (LS) or solution source (SS)^[10].

When it is not possible to separate the Da. between two or more LS, there should be a division of the Da. among the LS as a proportion of their respective 'total n'. Da. = 0 when Da. was non-significant for damage or non-detected by LS in the system^[10]. When an SS operates in more than one LS, that caused damage, its ks are summed. RLS = 0 when Da. by LS or RLS was non-significant for damage by LS or reduced LS by SS in the system^[10].

ii) c (constancy) = Σ of occurrence of L.S. or S.S. on samples, where absence = 0 or presence = 1^[9].

iii) ds (distribution source) = 1 − P of the chi-square test of LS or SS on the samples^[9]. Counts (non-frequency) of L.S. or S.S. are used to perform the chi-square test.

These data, above, are obtained, by R-package 'IIProductionUnknown'^[13].

Percentage of RLS per SS (% RLSSS) = (R.L.S.S.S./total n of the LS – abundance or damage) × 100, where RLSSS = RLS × total n of the SS, with the R.L.S. not being summed in this case^[10]. These data, above, are obtained, by R-package 'IIProductionUnknown'^[13].

Results

The phytophagous arthropods exhibiting the highest % I.I.-P.U. on the leaves of S. saponaria saplings encompassed Liriomyza sp. (mines) (Diptera: Agromyzidae) at 53.49%, Bemisia sp. (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) at 13.29% (with a maximum damage score of IV), Phaneropterinae (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) at 11.21%, Tetranychus sp. (Acari: Tetranychidae) at 8.95% (with a maximum damage score of III), Tropidacris collaris (Orthoptera: Romaleidae) at 4.61%, and Stereoma anchoralis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) at 1.33% (Table 1).

Table 1. Total number (n), damage (Da.), key-source (ks), constancy (c), distribution source (ds), number of importance indice (n. II), sum of n. I.I.-P.U. (Σ n. II), and percentage of II by loss source (LS) on 48 Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae) saplings.

Loss source
LS	n	Da.	ks	c	ds	n. II.	Σ n. II.	% II.
Liriomyza sp. (mines)	478	0.8600	0.0018	27	1.00	0.0486	0.091	53.49
Bemisia sp.	2333	0.8800	0.0004	32	1.00	0.0121	0.091	13.29
Phaneropterinae	51	0.0206	0.0004	27	0.93	0.0102	0.091	11.21
Tetranychus sp.	709	0.9600	0.0014	6	1.00	0.0081	0.091	8.95
T. collaris	17	0.0069	0.0004	14	0.74	0.0042	0.091	4.61
S. anchoralis	5	0.0020	0.0004	3	1.00	0.0012	0.091	1.33
Charidotis sp.	4	0.0016	0.0004	2	1.00	0.0008	0.091	0.89
Alagoasa sp.	5	0.0020	0.0004	5	0.36	0.0007	0.091	0.80
Cerotoma sp.	4	0.0016	0.0004	4	0.40	0.0006	0.091	0.71
Curculionidae	3	0.0012	0.0004	3	0.44	0.0005	0.091	0.59
Lordops sp.	3	0.0012	0.0004	3	0.44	0.0005	0.091	0.59
Walterianela sp.	2	0.0008	0.0004	1	1.00	0.0004	0.091	0.44
Lepidoptera	2	0.0008	0.0004	2	0.49	0.0004	0.091	0.43
D. speciosa	2	0.0008	0.0004	2	0.49	0.0004	0.091	0.43
Lamprosoma sp.	2	0.0008	0.0004	2	0.49	0.0004	0.091	0.43
Eumolpus sp.	2	0.0008	0.0004	2	0.49	0.0004	0.091	0.43
Epitragus sp.	2	0.0008	0.0004	2	0.49	0.0004	0.091	0.43
Parasyphraea sp.	1	0.0004	0.0004	1	0.53	0.0002	0.091	0.23
Wanderbiltiana sp.	1	0.0004	0.0004	1	0.53	0.0002	0.091	0.23
Gryllidae	1	0.0004	0.0004	1	0.53	0.0002	0.091	0.23
Cephalocoema sp.	1	0.0004	0.0004	1	0.53	0.0002	0.091	0.23
A. reticulatum	11	0.0000	0.0000	2	1.00	0.0000	0.091	0.00
Anastrepha sp.	4	0.0000	0.0000	4	0.40	0.0000	0.091	0.00
B. hebe	10	0.0000	0.0000	7	0.99	0.0000	0.091	0.00
Euxesta sp.	3	0.0000	0.0000	3	0.44	0.0000	0.091	0.00
Fulgoridae	19	0.0000	0.0000	5	1.00	0.0000	0.091	0.00
Nasutitermes sp.	280	0.0000	0.0000	5	1.00	0.0000	0.091	0.00
P. torridus	1	0.0000	0.0000	1	0.53	0.0000	0.091	0.00
Pentatomidae	6	0.0000	0.0000	6	0.32	0.0000	0.091	0.00
Phenacoccus sp.	30	0.0000	0.0000	2	1.00	0.0000	0.091	0.00
Q. gigas	2	0.0000	0.0000	2	0.49	0.0000	0.091	0.00
T. spinipes	5	0.0000	0.0000	1	1.00	0.0000	0.091	0.00
I.I.-P.U. = ks × c × ds. ks = Da./total n of the L.S.. Da. = R² × (1 − P) when it is of the first degree, or (R² × (1 − P)) × (β₂/β₁) when it is of the second degree, where R² = determination coefficient and P = significance of ANOVA, β₁ = regression coefficient, and β₂ = regression coefficient (variable²), of the simple regression equation, or non-percentage of damage per L.S. c = Σ of occurrence of L.S. on each sample, 0 = absence or 1 = presence. ds = 1 − P of chi-square test of the L.S. Da. = 0 when Da. non-significant for damage or non-detected by L.S.

The natural enemies with the highest % I.I.-P.U. on the leaves of S. saponaria saplings were identified as Cycloneda sanguinea (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) at 98.94% and Pseudomyrmex termitarius (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) at 1.06%. Notably, the presence of P. termitarius (0.13%) and C. sanguinea (0.02%) led to a reduction in the numbers of Liriomyza sp. mines and Bemisia sp., respectively, on these saplings. Furthermore, the damage inflicted by Bemisia sp. on leaves exhibited a reduction per the number of P. termitarius (2.92%). Conversely, the number of Brachymyrmex sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) resulted in an increase in the number (1.18%) and damage (61.95%) of Bemisia sp. on S. saponaria saplings. The cumulative balances for the reduction in abundance and damage (%) were negative, measuring at −1.03% and −59.03%, respectively, on S. saponaria saplings (Tables 2 & 3).

Table 2. Total number (n), reduction of LS (RLS), key-source (ks), constancy (c), distribution source (ds), number of importance indice (n. II), sum of n. I.I.-P.U. (Σ n. II), and percentage of II by solution source (SS) on 48 Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae) saplings.

Solution source
SS	n	RLS.	ks	c	ds	n. II.	Σ n. II.	% II.
C. sanguinea	3	0.1231	0.0410	2	0.99	0.08	0.08	98.94
P. termitarius	121	0.0053	0.0000	20	1.00	0.00	0.08	1.06
A. rogersi	4	0.0000	0.0000	4	0.40	0.00	0.08	0.00
A. uncifera	3	0.0000	0.0000	3	0.44	0.00	0.08	0.00
Araneidae	31	0.0000	0.0000	18	1.00	0.00	0.08	0.00
Brachymyrmex sp.	184	0.0000	0.0000	21	1.00	0.00	0.08	0.00
Camponotus sp.	130	0.0000	0.0000	26	1.00	0.00	0.08	0.00
Chrysoperla sp.	3	0.0000	0.0000	2	0.99	0.00	0.08	0.00
Dolichopodidae	9	0.0000	0.0000	6	1.00	0.00	0.08	0.00
Ectatoma sp.	20	0.0000	0.0000	12	1.00	0.00	0.08	0.00
Leucauge sp.	13	0.0000	0.0000	4	1.00	0.00	0.08	0.00
M. religiosa	11	0.0000	0.0000	9	0.75	0.00	0.08	0.00
O. salticus	1	0.0000	0.0000	1	0.53	0.00	0.08	0.00
Oxyopidae	14	0.0000	0.0000	12	0.50	0.00	0.08	0.00
Pheidole sp.	272	0.0000	0.0000	23	1.00	0.00	0.08	0.00
Polybia sp.	6	0.0000	0.0000	4	1.00	0.00	0.08	0.00
Quemedice sp.	3	0.0000	0.0000	3	0.44	0.00	0.08	0.00
Salticidae	13	0.0000	0.0000	9	1.00	0.00	0.08	0.00
Syrphus sp.	2	0.0000	0.0000	2	0.49	0.00	0.08	0.00
T. angustula	2	0.0000	0.0000	1	1.00	0.00	0.08	0.00
Teudis sp.	3	0.0000	0.0000	3	0.44	0.00	0.08	0.00
Tmarus sp.	2	0.0000	0.0000	2	0.49	0.00	0.08	0.00
Uspachus sp.	4	0.0000	0.0000	4	0.40	0.00	0.08	0.00
I.I.-P.U. = ks × c × ds. ks = R.L.S./total n. of the SS.. R.L.S. = R² × (1 − P) when it is of the first degree, or (R² × (1 − P)) × (β₂/β₁) when it is of the second degree, where R² = determination coefficient and P = significance of ANOVA, β₁ = regression coefficient, and β₂ = regression coefficient (variable²), of the simple regression equation. c = Σ of occurrence of S.S. on each sample, 0 = absence or 1 = presence. ds = 1 − P of chi-square test of the SS. When a SS operates in more than one LS, that caused damage, its ks are summed. ES. = 0 when Da. by LS or ES non-significant for damage by LS or reduced LS by SS.

Table 3. Percentage of reduction in abundance and/or damage (%R.) of loss source (LS) per solution source (SS), sum (Σ), and total of Σ of RLS (T.Σ) on 48 Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae) saplings.

	LS.
% RLSSS - abundance
SS.	Liriomyza sp. (mines)	Bemisia sp.
C. sanguinea	/	0.02
Brachymyrmex sp.	/	−1.18
P. termitarius	0.13	/
Σ	0.13	−1.16
*T.Σ	−1.03	/
% RLSSS - damage
SS.	Bemisia sp.
Brachymyrmex sp.	−61.95
P. termitarius	2.92
Σ	−59.03
/ = L.S. was not reduced per S.S. % R.L.S.S.S. = (R.L.S.S.S./total n of the L.S. – abundance or damage) × 100, where R.L.S.S.S. = R.L.S. × total n of the S.S. R.L.S. = R² × (1 − P) when it is of the first degree, or (R² × (1 − P)) × (β₂/β₁) when it is of the second degree, where R² = determination coefficient and P = significance of ANOVA, β₁ = regression coefficient, and β₂ = regression coefficient (variable²), of the simple regression equation.

Discussion

The phytophagous arthropods, Liriomyza sp., Bemisia sp., Phaneropterinae, Tetranychus sp., T. collaris, and S. anchoralis, demonstrated the highest % I.I.-P.U. on S. saponaria saplings. Liriomyza sp. mines, known to diminish the photosynthetic area in various plants such as Solanum lycopersicon (Solanaceae), Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae), and Terminalia argentea (Combretaceae)^[14−18]. Certain species of Aleyrodidae, exemplified by Bemisia tabaci, are recognized pests inflicting damage on crops including P. vulgaris, Glycine max, Acacia auriculiformis, A. mangium, and Platycyamus regnellii (Fabaceae); Capsicum annuum and S. lycopersicon (Solanaceae); Cucumis melo (Cucurbitaceae); and T. argentea^[10,19−25]. Aleyrodidae, in addition to causing fumagine, are implicated in virus transmission and the introduction of insect toxins^[10,19−25]. Certain species of Tettigoniidae have been documented as causing damage to the fruits of Musa spp. (Musaceae) and the leaves of grasses, A. mangim, A. auriculiformis, and T. argentea^{[10,12,18,26,27]}. Tetranychidae mites, recognized for puncturing the epidermis of leaves, are implicated in G. max, Caryocar brasiliense (Caryocaraceae), S. lycopersicum, and P. vulgaris^[28−33]. T. collaris is known to attack S. saponaria, Casuarina glauca (Casuarinaceae), A. auriculiformis, A. mangium, L. leucocephala, and T. argentea (Combretaceae)^{[12,18,27,34,35]}. Lastly, S. anchoralis has been reported to inflict damage on A. mangium and A. auriculiformis^[10,12,27].

Cycloneda sanguinea and P. termitarius exhibited the highest % I.I.-P.U., thereby diminishing both the numerical abundance and damage caused by Bemisia sp., as well as the population of Liriomyza sp. on S. saponaria saplings. Cycloneda sanguinea, recognized as a significant predator of sap-sucking insects, has demonstrated efficacy in mitigating pest populations on T. argentea saplings in degraded areas and various crops such as Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae), Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae), and Abelmoschus esculentus (Malvaceae), both in field conditions and laboratory bioassays^[23,36−38]. Tending ants, exemplified by P. termitarius, have been observed to reduce beetle and caterpillar attacks on leaves and fruits^[39−42]. Additionally, Cephalocoema sp. (Orthoptera: Proscopiidae), along with ants, serves as a bioindicator^[10,43]. The potential influence of these predators, particularly those at the apex of the trophic pyramid such as C. sanguinea, in controlling the abundance of herbivores like Bemisia sp. through top-down effects suggests a mechanism that could contribute to the survival of S. saponaria. However, the nuanced relationships between predators and herbivory in commercial crops of S. saponaria warrant further investigation. Contrary to expectations, a negative effect of P. termitarius on Bemisia sp. damage was observed on S. saponaria saplings, defying the anticipated mutualistic relationship between tending ants and sap-sucking insects (Hemiptera)^[44,45]. While Demolin-Leite^[10] did not identify correlations between this tending ant and Aleyrodidae or Aethalion reticulatum (Hemiptera: Aethalionidae) on A. auriculiformis saplings, an increase in the number (≈ 1%) and leaf damage (≈ 62%) caused by Bemisia sp. was noted in relation to the population of Brachymyrmex sp. on S. saponaria saplings, underscoring the complexity of interactions within this ecological system. Further studies are warranted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms governing these relationships. These outcomes can be attributed to the collaborative interactions between tending ants and sap-sucking insects, leading to an exacerbation of the damage inflicted upon these plants. Analogous findings were observed in the context of A. auriculiformis saplings, where the presence of tending ants, specifically Brachymyrmex sp. (e.g., A. reticulatum), and Cephalotes sp. (e.g., Aleyrodidae), resulted in a substantial increase (≈ 95%) in the populations of A. reticulatum and Aleyrodidae, accompanied by a corresponding rise (≈ 30%) in Aleyrodidae-induced damage to this plant^[10]. The detrimental impact of these interactions was reflected in a negative final balance on A. auriculiformis saplings, with a subsequent rise of approximately 57% in herbivorous insect populations within these saplings^[10], mirroring the observed trends in S. saponaria saplings. Particularly at elevated population densities, sap-sucking insects may establish associations with tending ants^[44,45], wherein these ants collectively and aggressively defend their resources, including phytophagous hemipterans^[44]. The lack of a positive effect of tending ants on the biological control of sap-sucking insects may be attributed to mutualistic relationships with these phytophagous insects^[46,47]. In agricultural systems, this dynamic can potentially exacerbate pest-related challenges^[48]. Although Brachymyrmex sp. initially does not pose a significant issue for S. saponaria saplings, the potential for this tending ant species to proliferate and increase sap-sucking insect populations (e.g., Bemisia sp.) exists, particularly under specific conditions such as monoculture, climate, soil variations, and favorable fertilization. This scenario may pose challenges for S. saponaria saplings, especially in the context of prospective commercial crops with monoculture practices.

Liriomyza sp., Bemisia sp., Phaneropterinae, Tetranychus sp., T. collaris, and S. anchoralis, exhibiting the highest % I.I.-P.U. on S. saponaria, pose a potential threat, indicating their capacity to induce losses in crops of this plant. In contrast, C. sanguinea and P. termitarius, characterized by the most substantial % I.I.-P.U., exhibit potential as agents capable of mitigating herbivorous insects on S. saponaria. Furthermore, an anticipated increase in the abundance of ladybeetles, particularly those with major ecological significance, could be expected in future commercial crops of S. saponaria. It is imperative to accord special attention to the association between Brachymyrmex sp. and Bemisia sp. in prospective S. saponaria commercial crops, as this tending ant species has demonstrated an ability to augment the population of the sap-sucking insect. The % I.I.-P.U. emerges as an effective tool for delineating sources of loss and potential solutions in this plant species within systems characterized by production unknown, such as degraded areas. This innovative index holds promise as a valuable tool in the realm of agricultural technology, particularly for monitoring and managing degraded areas.

Author contributions

The author confirms sole responsibility for the following: study conception and design, data collection, analysis and interpretation of results, and manuscript preparation.

Contents

Policies

Services

Partnerships

A preliminary study on the occurrence and significance of phytophagous arthropods and natural enemies on Sapindus saponaria saplings

Abstract

Introduction

Chemical components of Huangqin Tea

Flavonoids

Essential oils

Others

Functional properties

Anti-inflammatory activity

Anti-bacterial and antiviral activity

Antipyretic and analgesic effect

Neuroprotective effect

Effects on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases

Anti-aging effects

Others

Safety issues

Conclusions and future perspectives

Author contributions

Data availability

Acknowledgments

Conflict of interest

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions

References

About this article

Cite this article

Article Metrics

Access History

Other Articles By Authors

A preliminary study on the occurrence and significance of phytophagous arthropods and natural enemies on Sapindus saponaria saplings

HTML

Catalog

HTML

Contents

Policies

Services

Partnerships

Export File

Citation

Format

Content