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Somatic embryogenesis (SE) is a universal phenomenon unique to the plant kingdom. The SE technique has considerable application significance in valuable varieties for which it is difficult to obtain seeds and for forests with long growth cycles. The SE technique is considered to be one of the most important asexual propagation techniques for conifers[1] and is conducive to the rapid reproduction of new varieties of valuable conifers. In 1985, Hakman et al. were the first to achieve SE in coniferous species[2]. They induced somatic proembryogenic masses (PEMs) using immature Picea abies zygotes as explants and obtained regenerated plants. To date, most conifer species can only use immature/mature embryos as explants for PEM induction, although there are a few exceptional genotypes in which PEM can be induced from primordial shoots[3,4]. The cell morphology and physiological changes associated with somatic embryo induction, maturation and germination of spruce species have been systematically studied in Picea glauca[5]. SE has been achieved in more than 50 tree species and hybrids in six coniferous genera, including Abies, Larix, Picea, Pinus, Pseudotsuga and Sequol[2,5−8].
Induction of somatic embryogenesis in conifers -
The induction and differentiation rates of the PEMs are related to genotype. Currently, some desirable varieties are difficult to propagate with the SE technique. Somatic dedifferentiation and redifferentiation require the regulation of a multitude of genes and chromosome reprogramming, which are controlled by DNA methylation and histone modification. Related research has been widely conducted in angiosperms. However, this knowledge is very limited in gymnosperms. Some genes have been verified as major regulators of SE or plant embryo patterning in a variety of plant species. Table 1 lists some of these genes that have been reported in conifers. Homologs of BBM, LEC1, WOX2 and SERK1 have been identified in Larix decidua[10]. LEC1, WOX2 and SERK1 are presumed to conserve their function in the induction of SE based on their expression pattern[11].
Table 1. List of some of the major regulatory genes in somatic embryogenesis.
Gene family Gene Description References LRR-RLKs SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-
LIKE KINASE 1-5 (SERKs)Transmembrane proteins; involved in signal transduction and have been strongly associated with somatic embryogenesis and apomixis in a number of plant species. [23] AP2/ERF BABYBOOM (BBM) Tanscription factor; activates LEC1-ABI3-FUS3-LEC2 network to induce somatic embryogenesis. [24] EMBRYOMAKER (EMK/AIL5 ) Tanscription factors; promote the formation of somatic embryo on cotyledons. [25] WOUND INDUCED DEDIFFERENTIATION1 (WIND1) Tanscription factor; controls cell dedifferentiation in Arabidopsis and functions as a key molecular switch for plant cell dedifferentiation. [26,27] B3-AFL LEAFY COTYLEDON 1 (LEC1) Tanscription factor; promote somatic embryo development in vegetative organs. [28] LEC1-LIKE (L1L) Tanscription factor; promote somatic embryo development in vegetative organs. [29] LEAFY COTYLEDON 2 (LEC2) Tanscription factor; activates the expression of embryonic traits in vegetative tissues. [28] ABSCISIC ACID INSENSITIVE 3 (ABI3)/VIVI PAROUS (VP1) Transcript factor; regulates embryo-specific ABA-induced genes. [30] FUSCA3 (FUS3) Transcription factor; promotes embryogenesis by regulating synthesis of storage proteins and lipids. [31] VP1/ABI3-LIKE (VAL) Transcription factor; repress plant embryo development. [32] WOX WUSCHEL (WUS) Transcription factor; a central player in stem cell maintenance in the SAM. [33] WUSCHEL-related homeobox (WOX) 2 Transcription factor; promotes apical embryonic cell division. [34] WOX 5 Transcription factor; a central player in stem cell maintenance in the SAM. [35] WOX 8 and WOX9 WOX8 and WOX9 functionally overlap in promoting basal embryonic cell division. [34] NAC CUP SHAPED COTYLEDONS 1-3 (CUCs) CUP SHAPED COTYLEDONS 1-3 act redundantly to specify the cotyledon boundary. [36−38] HD-GL2 Arabidopsis thaliana meristem L1 layer (ATML1) An early molecular marker for the establishment of both apical-basal and radial patterns during plant embryogenesis. [39] ANTHOCYANINLESS2 (ANL2) anl2 mutant shows aberrant cellular organization. [40] Class I KNOX gene SHOOTMERISTEMLESS (STM) Tanscription factors regulate the architecture of the SAM by maintaining a balance between cell division and differentiation. [41] GRAS SCARECROW (SCR) Regulates the radial organization of the root. [42] AGO proteins ARGONAUTE (AGO) Participate in post-transcriptional gene silencing and influence stem cell fate specification in both plants and animals. [43] PcG proteins POLYCOMB REPRESSIVE COMPLEX
subunit genesEpigenetic effector proteins; stem cell self-renewal, pluripotency, gene silencing; repressive effect on dedifferentiation ability of cells. [15,16] Low levels of global DNA methylation have been found in the embryogenic cultures of several plants. It was found that de novo DNA methylation and its maintenance are required for the regulation of SE in Picea abies[12]. Klimaszewska et al. detected no significant differences in DNA methylation between embryogenic and nonembryogenic Pinus pinaster cultures[13]. Histone posttranslational modifications such as histone deacetylation and methylation have been implicated in the formation of somatic embryos. Trichostatin A (TSA) treatment, which inhibits histone deacetylases, interferes with somatic embryogenesis induction in conifers[14]. H3K27me3, which is written and read by polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), controls cell differentiation by directing widespread transcriptional repression[15,16]. Nakamura et al.[17] reported that the H3K27me3 level was low in the productive PEM but markedly increased upon embryo induction in P. abies.
Zygotic embryos are nourished via the phloem tissue, whereas somatic embryos use an exogenous supply of carbohydrates. It is assumed that the existence of ‘nurse cells’, which can provide an endosperm-like environment to facilitate the initial development of somatic embryos, is critical for the proliferation of PEMs. Conditioned medium (spent medium harvested from cultured cells) from embryogenic cultures can promote embryogenesis. Elhiti et al. reported 51 proteins that function in early somatic embryogenesis[18]. A glycosylated acidic endochitinase, which is involved in the cleavage of compounds such as lipo-chitooligosaccharides (LCOs)[19] and arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs)[20], can stimulate embryo development and growth. In P. abies, the chitinase 4-encoding gene Chia4-Pa is expressed in the single cell-layered zone surrounding the corrosion cavity of the megagametophyte and surrounding the early somatic embryo[21]. Furthermore, LCOs and AGPs have been isolated from P. abies conditioned medium and have been demonstrated to be effective stimulators of somatic embryogenesis[19]. Vanillyl benzyl ether has been confirmed to be an inhibitory compound that leads to the development of new somatic embryos[22]. This compound could inhibit the differentiation of suspensors.
Conifer somatic embryogenesis techniques and the forest industry -
The SE technique could intervene at two stages of the forest breeding strategy. First, the SE technique could be used to achieve faster offspring determination by providing an accurate assessment of genotype stability. Second, after the candidate genotype is identified, the SE technique could be used to mass produce valuable genotype copies and eventually achieve large-scale production. Forestry breeding via SE has several advantages compared with traditional forest breeding: 1) SE is not affected by the flowering and seed production cycle of forest trees, which provides greater flexibility for the deployment of forest renewable resources; 2) the intensity of genetic selection is greatly improved by SE breeding, as it is possible to achieve rapid reproduction of a small number of genotypes, which have a larger selection differential; 3) the SE technique combined with early selection on molecular labels could be used in the early development stage to better evaluate phenotypic type and plasticity and eventually shorten the breeding cycle; and 4) evaluating the traits of SE seedlings provides stronger evidence for genetic assays than traditional progeny tests. Using SE seedling evaluation, the environmental interactions with genotypes can be estimated more accurately, which improves the efficiency of clone determinations[6].
Information on the application of the SE technique in industrial production is still limited at present. Tree species such as Abies nordmanniana, P. abies, P. glauca, P. sitchensis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinus radiata and P. taeda are being researched. P. abies, P. sitchensis, P. menziesii, P. radiata and P. taeda are of interest for the commercial production of coniferous SE plants by transnational corporations. According to reports, the Arborgen (USA) and Weyerhaeuser (USA) companies, which are among the world's largest wood producers, have the largest application capacity for the SE technique. Arborgen could produce one million P. taeda SE seedlings annually. Weyerhaeuser plans to produce ten million synthetic seeds per year via the SE technique.
It is still a long process to achieve industrialization of conifer somatic embryo production. Establishing a cryopreserved PEM library would be conducive to applying the SE technique to industrial production. In addition, plant biologists strive to expand the explant types that can be used for PEM induction. Finally, determining how to reduce costs in the SE process without affecting the quality of embryos is a problem that concerns many companies and institutions. In addition to improving the methods of PEM induction, somatic embryo differentiation, germination and planting, it is also important to connect each step effectively to maximize the production efficiency while minimizing the economic cost. Several strategies have been investigated including strict control of liquid proliferative media conditions and embryonic tissue density for different genotypes to maintain consistency in callus growth and proliferation cycle duration and manual control of the environmental conditions of germination to reduce the germination time in vitro without affecting the germination percentage. Egertsdotter et al. have summarized these studies and the progress of the SE technique in the field of conifer breeding[72]. Establishing a database and developing an automated system to monitor the status of cryopreservation and production materials, mechanizing the production process of SE, applying bioreactors and automation systems in the production of somatic embryos and studying the impact of light on the development of somatic seedlings would also be essential tasks to achieve the breeding goal of using the SE technique to achieve efficient, high-quality and economical production of tens of millions of seedlings.
(1) Table(1) References(72) - About this article
Cite this articleZhu T, Wang J, Hu J, Ling J. 2022. Mini review: Application of the somatic embryogenesis technique in conifer species. Forestry Research 2:18 doi: 10.48130/FR-2022-0018 -
Mini review: Application of the somatic embryogenesis technique in conifer species
- Received: 21 September 2022
- Accepted: 21 November 2022
- Published online: 07 December 2022
Abstract: The somatic embryogenesis (SE) process is better suited to large-scale production and automation than other clonal propagation methods such as the rooting of cuttings. SE is becoming a key technique to promote the asexual industrialization of conifers. Furthermore, somatic embryos are an ideal material to study the molecular mechanism of conifer embryo development, as the processes of somatic and zygotic embryo development are very similar. This brief review introduces the culturing techniques of the SE process in conifers and outlines the progress and deficiencies in conifer SE research. Emphasis is placed on the patterning formation of conifer somatic embryos.
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Key words:
- Conifer /
- Somatic embryogenesis /
- Molecular regulation /
- Large-scale propagation.