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Appropriate sodium nitroprusside dose contributes to the quality maintenance of fresh walnuts

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  • Fresh walnuts (Juglans regia L.) are challenging to store due to their high water content and delicate green appearance. It has been reported that sodium nitroprusside (SNP, a nitric oxide donor) can promote stress tolerance. However, whether SNP affects the postharvest quality of fresh walnuts remains unknown. This research showed that appropriate SNP treatment contributed to walnut preservation; in particular, 0.5 mmol/L SNP treatment resulted in a better appearance and less decay (59.7%). Compared with the control, this treatment not only increased the levels of proteases related to fresh walnut disease (chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase) but also increased the overall antioxidant level and reduced oxidant damage. Moreover, respiratory metabolism and ethylene release were greatly suppressed (9.5%), and the overall sensory evaluation did not reveal any adverse effects associated with a lower acid or peroxide content. Thus, it was inferred that the optimal SNP dose activated disease-related enzymes, mediated the physiological metabolism rate, regulated the ROS-redox balance and therefore reduced decay and maintained the walnut quality. This is the first report of SNP (NO) application for the preservation of fresh walnuts and may provide information to facilitate practical application of this potential innovation.
  • Starting in the early 2000s, China has experienced rapid growth as an emerging wine market. It has now established itself as the world's second-largest grape-growing country in terms of vineyard surface area. Furthermore, China has also secured its position as the sixth-biggest wine producer globally and the fifth-most significant wine consumer in terms of volume[1]. The Ningxia Hui autonomous region, known for its reputation as the highest quality wine-producing area in China, is considered one of the country's most promising wine regions. The region's arid or semiarid climate, combined with ample sunlight and warmth, thanks to the Yellow River, provides ideal conditions for grape cultivation. Wineries in the Ningxia Hui autonomous region are renowned as the foremost representatives of elite Chinese wineries. All wines produced in this region originate from grapes grown in their vineyards, adhering to strict quality requirements, and have gained a well-deserved international reputation for excellence. Notably, in 2011, Helan Mountain's East Foothill in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region received protected geographic indication status in China. Subsequently, in 2012, it became the first provincial wine region in China to be accepted as an official observer by the International Organisation of Vine and Wine (OIV)[2]. The wine produced in the Helan Mountain East Region of Ningxia, China, is one of the first Agricultural and Food Geographical Indications. Starting in 2020, this wine will be protected in the European Union[3].

    Marselan, a hybrid variety of Cabernet Sauvignon and Grenache was introduced to China in 2001 by the French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA). Over the last 15 years, Marselan has spread widely across China, in contrast to its lesser cultivation in France. The wines produced from Marselan grapes possess a strong and elegant structure, making them highly suitable for the preferences of Chinese consumers. As a result, many wineries in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region have made Marselan wines their main product[4]. Wine is a complex beverage that is influenced by various natural and anthropogenic factors throughout the wine-making process. These factors include soil, climate, agrochemicals, and human intervention. While there is an abundance of research available on wine production, limited research has been conducted specifically on local wines in the Eastern Foot of Helan Mountain. This research gap is of significant importance for the management and quality improvement of Chinese local wines.

    Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) is a rapid analytical technique used to detect trace gases and characterize chemical ionic substances. It achieves this through the gas-phase separation of ionized molecules under an electric field at ambient pressure. In recent years, IMS has gained increasing popularity in the field of food-omics due to its numerous advantages. These advantages include ultra-high analytical speed, simplicity, easy operation, time efficiency, relatively low cost, and the absence of sample preparation steps. As a result, IMS is now being applied more frequently in various areas of food analysis, such as food composition and nutrition, food authentication, detection of food adulteration, food process control, and chemical food safety[5,6]. The orthogonal hyphenation of gas chromatography (GC) and IMS has greatly improved the resolution of complex food matrices when using GC-IMS, particularly in the analysis of wines[7].

    The objective of this study was to investigate the changes in the physicochemical properties of Marselan wine during the winemaking process, with a focus on the total phenolic and flavonoids content, antioxidant activity, and volatile profile using the GC-IMS method. The findings of this research are anticipated to make a valuable contribution to the theoretical framework for evaluating the authenticity and characterizing Ningxia Marselan wine. Moreover, it is expected that these results will aid in the formulation of regulations and legislation pertaining to Ningxia Marselan wine in China.

    All the grapes used to produce Marselan wines, grow in the Xiban vineyard (106.31463° E and 38.509541° N) situated in Helan Mountain's East Foothill of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region in China.

    Folin-Ciocalteau reagent, (±)-6-Hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox), 2,20-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 2,4,6-tris (2-pyridyl)-s-triazine (TPTZ), anhydrous methanol, sodium nitrite, and sodium carbonate anhydrous were purchased from Shanghai Aladdin Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Reference standards of (+)-catechin, gallic acid, and the internal standard (IS) 4-methyl-2-pentanol were supplied by Shanghai Yuanye Bio-Technology Co., Ltd (Shanghai, China). The purity of the above references was higher than 98%. Ultrapure water (18.2 MΩ cm) was prepared by a Milli-Q system (Millipore, Bedford, MA, USA).

    Stage 1−Juice processing: Grapes at the fully mature stage are harvested and crushed, and potassium metabisulfite (5 mg/L of SO2) was evenly spread during the crushing process. The obtained must is transferred into stainless steel tanks. Stage 2−Alcoholic fermentation: Propagated Saccharomyces cerevisiae ES488 (Enartis, Italy) are added to the fresh must, and alcoholic fermentation takes place, after the process is finished, it is kept in the tanks for 7 d for traditional maceration to improve color properties and phenolics content. Stage 3−Malolactic fermentation: When the pomace is fully concentrated at the bottom of the tanks, the wine is transferred to another tank for separation from these residues. Oenococcus oeni VP41 (Lallemand Inc., France) is inoculated and malic acid begins to convert into lactic acid. Stage 4−Wine stabilization: After malolactic fermentation, potassium metabisulfite is re-added (35 mg/L of SO2), and then transferred to oak barrels for stabilization, this process usually takes 6-24 months. A total of four batches of samples during the production process of Marselan wine were collected in this study.

    Total polyphenols were determined on 0.5 mL diluted wine sample using the Folin-Ciocalteu method[8], using gallic acid as a reference compound, and expressed as milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per liter of wine. The total flavonoid content was measured on 0.05 mL of wine sample by a colorimetric method previously described[9]. Results are calculated from the calibration curve obtained with catechin, as milligrams of catechin equivalents per liter of wine.

    The antioxidative activity was determined using the ABTS·+ assay[10]. Briefly, the ABTS·+ radical was prepared from a mixture of 88 μL of potassium persulfate (140 mmol/L) with 5 mL of the ABTS·+ solution (7 mmol/L). The reaction was kept at room temperature under the absence of light for 16 h. Sixty μL samples were mixed with 3 mL of ABTS·+ solution with measured absorption of 0.700 ± 0.200 at 734 nm. After 6 min reaction, the absorbance of samples were measured with a spectrophotometer at 734 nm. Each sample was tested in triplicate. The data were expressed as mmol Trolox equivalent of antioxidative capacity per liter of the wine sample (mmol TE/L). Calibration curves, in the range 64.16−1,020.20 μmol TE/L, showed good linearity (R2 ≥ 0.99).

    The FRAP assay was conducted according to a previous study[11]. The FRAP reagent was freshly prepared and mixed with 10 mM/L TPTZ solution prepared in 20 mM/L FeCl3·6H2O solution, 40 mM/L HCl, and 300 mM/L acetate buffer (pH 3.6) (1:1:10; v:v:v). Ten ml of diluted sample was mixed with 1.8 ml of FRAP reagent and incubated at 37 °C for 30 min. The absorbance was determined at 593 nm and the results were reported as mM Fe (II) equivalent per liter of the wine sample. The samples were analyzed and calculated by a calibration curve of ferrous sulphate (0.15−2.00 mM/mL) for quantification.

    The volatile compounds were analyzed on a GC-IMS instrument (FlavourSpec, GAS, Dortmund, Germany) equipped with an autosampler (Hanon Auto SPE 100, Shandong, China) for headspace analysis. One mL of each wine was sampled in 20 mL headspace vials (CNW Technologies, Germany) with 20 μL of 4-methyl-2-pentanol (20 mg/L) ppm as internal standard, incubated at 60 °C and continuously shaken at 500 rpm for 10 min. One hundred μL of headspace sample was automatically loaded into the injector in splitless mode through a syringe heated to 65 °C. The analytes were separated on a MxtWAX capillary column (30 m × 0.53 mm, 1.0 μm) from Restek (Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, USA) at a constant temperature of 60 °C and then ionized in the IMS instrument (FlavourSpec®, Gesellschaft für Analytische Sensorsysteme mbH, Dortmund, Germany) at 45 °C. High purity nitrogen gas (99.999%) was used as the carrier gas at 150 mL/min, and drift gas at 2 ml/min for 0−2.0 min, then increased to 100 mL/min from 2.0 to 20 min, and kept at 100 mL/min for 10 min. Ketones C4−C9 (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) were used as an external standard to determine the retention index (RI) of volatile compounds. Analyte identification was performed using a Laboratory Analytical Viewer (LAV) 2.2.1 (GAS, Dortmund, Germany) by comparing RI and the drift time of the standard in the GC-IMS Library.

    All samples were prepared in duplicate and tested at least six times, and the results were expressed as mean ± standard error (n = 4) and the level of statistical significance (p < 0.05) was analyzed by using Tukey's range test using SPSS 18.0 software (SPSS Inc., IL, USA). The principal component analysis (PCA) was performed using the LAV software in-built 'Dynamic PCA' plug-in to model patterns of aroma volatiles. Orthogonal partial least-square discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) in SIMCA-P 14.1 software (Umetrics, Umeă, Sweden) was used to analyze the different volatile organic compounds in the different fermentation stages.

    The results of the changes in the antioxidant activity of Marselan wines during the entire brewing process are listed in Table 1. It can be seen that the contents of flavonoids and polyphenols showed an increasing trend during the brewing process of Marselan wine, which range from 315.71−1,498 mg CE/L and 1,083.93−3,370.92 mg GAE/L, respectively. It was observed that the content increased rapidly in the alcoholic fermentation stage, but slowly in the subsequent fermentation stage. This indicated that the formation of flavonoid and phenolic substances in wine mainly concentrated in the alcoholic fermentation stage, which is consistent with previous reports. This is mainly because during the alcoholic fermentation of grapes, impregnation occurred to extract these compounds[12]. The antioxidant activities of Marselan wine samples at different fermentation stages were detected by FRAP and ABTS methods[11]. The results showed that the ferric reduction capacity and ABST·+ free radical scavenging capacity of the fermented Marselan wines were 2.4 and 1.5 times higher than the sample from the juice processing stage, respectively, indicating that the fermented Marselan wine had higher antioxidant activity. A large number of previous studies have suggested that there is a close correlation between antioxidant activity and the content of polyphenols and flavonoids[1315]. Previous studies have reported that Marselan wine has the highest total phenol and anthocyanin content compared to the wine of Tannat, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, and Syrah[13]. Polyphenols and flavonoids play an important role in improving human immunity. Therefore, Marselan wines are popular because of their high phenolic and flavonoid content and high antioxidant capacity.

    Table 1.  GC-IMS integration parameters of volatile compounds in Marselan wine at different fermentation stages.
    No. Compounds Formula RI* Rt
    [sec]**
    Dt
    [RIPrel]***
    Identification
    approach
    Concentration (μg/mL) (n = 4)
    Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
    Aldehydes
    5 Furfural C5H4O2 1513.1 941.943 1.08702 RI, DT, IS 89.10 ± 4.05c 69.98 ± 3.22c 352.16 ± 39.06b 706.30 ± 58.22a
    6 Furfural dimer C5H4O2 1516.6 948.77 1.33299 RI, DT, IS 22.08 ± 0.69b 18.68 ± 2.59c 23.73 ± 2.69b 53.39 ± 9.42a
    12 (E)-2-hexenal C6H10O 1223.1 426.758 1.18076 RI, DT, IS 158.17 ± 7.26a 47.57 ± 2.51b 39.00 ± 2.06c 43.52 ± 4.63bc
    17 (E)-2-pentenal C5H8O 1129.2 333.392 1.1074 RI, DT, IS 23.00 ± 4.56a 16.42 ± 1.69c 18.82 ± 0.27b 18.81 ± 0.55b
    19 Heptanal C7H14O 1194.2 390.299 1.33002 RI, DT, IS 17.28 ± 2.25a 10.22 ± 0.59c 14.50 ± 8.84b 9.11 ± 1.06c
    22 Hexanal C6H12O 1094.6 304.324 1.25538 RI, DT, IS 803.11 ± 7.47c 1631.34 ± 19.63a 1511.11 ± 26.91b 1526.53 ± 8.12b
    23 Hexanal dimer C6H12O 1093.9 303.915 1.56442 RI, DT, IS 588.85 ± 7.96a 93.75 ± 4.67b 92.93 ± 3.13b 95.49 ± 2.50b
    29 3-Methylbutanal C5H10O 914.1 226.776 1.40351 RI, DT, IS 227.86 ± 6.39a 33.32 ± 2.59b 22.36 ± 1.18c 21.94 ± 1.73c
    33 Dimethyl sulfide C2H6S 797.1 193.431 0.95905 RI, DT, IS 120.07 ± 4.40c 87.a02 ± 3.82d 246.81 ± 5.62b 257.18 ± 3.04a
    49 2-Methylpropanal C4H8O 828.3 202.324 1.28294 RI, DT, IS 150.49 ± 7.13a 27.08 ± 1.48b 19.36 ± 1.10c 19.69 ± 0.92c
    Ketones
    45 3-Hydroxy-2-butanone C4H8O2 1293.5 515.501 1.20934 RI, DT, IS 33.20 ± 3.83c 97.93 ± 8.72b 163.20 ± 21.62a 143.51 ± 21.48a
    46 Acetone C3H6O 836.4 204.638 1.11191 RI, DT, IS 185.75 ± 8.16c 320.43 ± 12.32b 430.74 ± 3.98a 446.58 ± 10.41a
    Organic acid
    3 Acetic acid C2H4O2 1527.2 969.252 1.05013 RI, DT, IS 674.66 ± 46.30d 3602.39 ± 30.87c 4536.02 ± 138.86a 4092.30 ± 40.33b
    4 Acetic acid dimer C2H4O2 1527.2 969.252 1.15554 RI, DT, IS 45.25 ± 3.89c 312.16 ± 19.39b 625.79 ± 78.12a 538.35 ± 56.38a
    Alcohols
    8 1-Hexanol C6H14O 1365.1 653.825 1.32772 RI, DT, IS 1647.65 ± 28.94a 886.33 ± 32.96b 740.73 ± 44.25c 730.80 ± 21.58c
    9 1-Hexanol dimer C6H14O 1365.8 655.191 1.64044 RI, DT, IS 378.42 ± 20.44a 332.65 ± 25.76a 215.78 ± 21.04b 200.14 ± 28.34b
    13 3-Methyl-1-butanol C5H12O 1213.3 414.364 1.24294 RI, DT, IS 691.86 ± 9.95c 870.41 ± 22.63b 912.80 ± 23.94a 939.49 ± 12.44a
    14 3-Methyl-1-butanol dimer C5H12O 1213.3 414.364 1.49166 RI, DT, IS 439.90 ± 29.40c 8572.27 ± 60.56b 9083.14 ± 193.19a 9152.25 ± 137.80a
    15 1-Butanol C4H10O 1147.2 348.949 1.18073 RI, DT, IS 157.33 ± 9.44b 198.92 ± 3.92a 152.78 ± 10.85b 156.02 ± 9.80b
    16 1-Butanol dimer C4H10O 1146.8 348.54 1.38109 RI, DT, IS 24.14 ± 2.15c 274.75 ± 12.60a 183.02 ± 17.72b 176.80 ± 19.80b
    24 1-Propanol C3H8O 1040.9 274.803 1.11042 RI, DT, IS 173.73 ± 4.75a 55.84 ± 2.16c 80.80 ± 4.99b 83.57 ± 2.34b
    25 1-Propanol dimer C3H8O 1040.4 274.554 1.24784 RI, DT, IS 58.20 ± 1.30b 541.37 ± 11.94a 541.33 ± 15.57a 538.84 ± 9.74a
    28 Ethanol C2H6O 930.6 231.504 1.11901 RI, DT, IS 5337.84 ± 84.16c 11324.05 ± 66.18a 9910.20 ± 100.76b 9936.10 ± 101.24b
    34 Methanol CH4O 903.6 223.79 0.98374 RI, DT, IS 662.08 ± 13.87a 76.94 ± 2.15b 61.92 ± 1.96c 62.89 ± 0.81c
    37 2-Methyl-1-propanol C4H10O 1098.5 306.889 1.35839 RI, DT, IS 306.91 ± 4.09c 3478.35 ± 25.95a 3308.79 ± 61.75b 3313.85 ± 60.88b
    48 1-Pentanol C5H12O 1257.6 470.317 1.25222 RI, DT, IS 26.13 ± 2.52c 116.50 ± 3.71ab 112.37 ± 6.26b 124.17 ± 7.04a
    Esters
    1 Methyl salicylate C8H8O3 1859.6 1616.201 1.20489 RI, DT, IS 615.00 ± 66.68a 485.08 ± 31.30b 470.14 ± 23.02b 429.12 ± 33.74b
    7 Butyl hexanoate C10H20O2 1403.0 727.561 1.47354 RI, DT, IS 95.83 ± 17.04a 62.87 ± 3.62a 92.59 ± 11.88b 82.13 ± 3.61c
    10 Hexyl acetate C8H16O2 1298.6 524.366 1.40405 RI, DT, IS 44.72 ± 8.21a 33.18 ± 2.17d 41.50 ± 4.38c 40.89 ± 4.33b
    11 Propyl hexanoate C9H18O2 1280.9 499.577 1.39274 RI, DT, IS 34.65 ± 3.90d 70.43 ± 5.95a 43.97 ± 4.39b 40.12 ± 4.05c
    18 Ethyl hexanoate C8H16O2 1237.4 444.749 1.80014 RI, DT, IS 55.55 ± 5.62c 1606.16 ± 25.63a 787.24 ± 16.95b 788.91 ± 28.50b
    20 Isoamyl acetate C7H14O2 1127.8 332.164 1.30514 RI, DT, IS 164.22 ± 1.00d 243.69 ± 8.37c 343.51 ± 13.98b 365.46 ± 1.60a
    21 Isoamyl acetate dimer C7H14O2 1126.8 331.345 1.75038 RI, DT, IS 53.61 ± 4.79d 4072.20 ± 11.94a 2416.70 ± 49.84b 2360.46 ± 43.29c
    26 Isobutyl acetate C6H12O2 1020.5 263.605 1.23281 RI, DT, IS 101.65 ± 1.81a 15.52 ± 0.67c 44.87 ± 3.21b 45.96 ± 1.41b
    27 Isobutyl acetate dimer C6H12O2 1019.6 263.107 1.61607 RI, DT, IS 34.60 ± 1.05d 540.84 ± 5.64a 265.54 ± 8.31c 287.06 ± 3.66b
    30 Ethyl acetate dimer C4H8O2 885.2 218.564 1.33587 RI, DT, IS 1020.75 ± 6.86d 5432.71 ± 6.55a 5052.99 ± 9.65b 5084.47 ± 7.30c
    31 Ethyl acetate C4H8O2 878.3 216.574 1.09754 RI, DT, IS 215.65 ± 3.58a 38.29 ± 2.37c 71.59 ± 2.99b 69.32 ± 2.85b
    32 Ethyl formate C3H6O2 838.1 205.127 1.19738 RI, DT, IS 175.48 ± 3.79d 1603.20 ± 13.72a 1472.10 ± 5.95c 1509.08 ± 13.26b
    35 Ethyl octanoate C10H20O2 1467.0 852.127 1.47312 RI, DT, IS 198.86 ± 36.71b 1853.06 ± 17.60a 1555.51 ± 24.21a 1478.05 ± 33.63a
    36 Ethyl octanoate dimer C10H20O2 1467.0 852.127 2.03169 RI, DT, IS 135.50 ± 13.02d 503.63 ± 15.86a 342.89 ± 11.62b 297.28 ± 14.40c
    38 Ethyl butanoate C6H12O2 1042.1 275.479 1.5664 RI, DT, IS 21.29 ± 2.68c 1384.67 ± 8.97a 1236.52 ± 20.21b 1228.09 ± 5.09b
    39 Ethyl 3-methylbutanoate C7H14O2 1066.3 288.754 1.26081 RI, DT, IS 9.70 ± 1.85d 200.29 ± 4.21a 146.87 ± 8.70b 127.13 ± 12.54c
    40 Propyl acetate C5H10O2 984.7 246.908 1.48651 RI, DT, IS 4.57 ± 1.07c 128.63 ± 4.28a 87.75 ± 3.26b 88.49 ± 1.99b
    41 Ethyl propanoate C5H10O2 962.1 240.47 1.46051 RI, DT, IS 10.11 ± 0.34d 107.08 ± 3.50a 149.60 ± 5.39c 167.15 ± 12.90b
    42 Ethyl isobutyrate C6H12O2 971.7 243.229 1.56687 RI, DT, IS 18.29 ± 2.61d 55.22 ± 1.07c 98.81 ± 4.67b 104.71 ± 4.73a
    43 Ethyl lactate C5H10O3 1352.2 628.782 1.14736 RI, DT, IS 31.81 ± 2.91c 158.03 ± 2.80b 548.14 ± 74.21a 527.01 ± 39.06a
    44 Ethyl lactate dimer C5H10O3 1351.9 628.056 1.53618 RI, DT, IS 44.55 ± 2.03c 47.56 ± 4.02c 412.23 ± 50.96a 185.87 ± 31.25b
    47 Ethyl heptanoate C9H18O2 1339.7 604.482 1.40822 RI, DT, IS 39.55 ± 6.37a 38.52 ± 2.47a 28.44 ± 1.52c 30.77 ± 2.79b
    Unknown
    1 RI, DT, IS 15.53 ± 0.18 35.69 ± 0.80 12.70 ± 0.80 10.57 ± 0.86
    2 RI, DT, IS 36.71 ± 1.51 120.41 ± 3.44 198.12 ± 6.01 201.19 ± 3.70
    3 RI, DT, IS 44.35 ± 0.88 514.12 ± 4.28 224.78 ± 6.56 228.32 ± 4.62
    4 RI, DT, IS 857.64 ± 8.63 33.22 ± 1.99 35.05 ± 5.99 35.17 ± 3.97
    * Represents the retention index calculated using n-ketones C4−C9 as external standard on MAX-WAX column. ** Represents the retention time in the capillary GC column. *** Represents the migration time in the drift tube.
     | Show Table
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    This study adopted the GC-IMS method to test the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the samples from the different fermentation stages of Marselan wine. Figure 1 shows the gas phase ion migration spectrum obtained, in which the ordinate represents the retention time of the gas chromatographic peaks and the abscissa represents the ion migration time (normalized)[16]. The entire spectrum represents the aroma fingerprints of Marselan wine at different fermentation stages, with each signal point on the right of the relative reactant ion peak (RIP) representing a volatile organic compound detected from the sample[17]. Here, the sample in stage 1 (juice processing) was used as a reference and the characteristic peaks in the spectrum of samples in other fermentation stages were compared and analyzed after deducting the reference. The colors of the same component with the same concentration cancel each other to form a white background. In the topographic map of other fermentation stages, darker indicates higher concentration compared to the white background. In the 2D spectra of different fermentation stages, the position and number of peaks indicated that peak intensities are basically the same, and there is no obvious difference. However, it is known that fermentation is an extremely complex chemical process, and the content and types of volatile organic compounds change with the extension of fermentation time, so other detection and characterization methods are needed to make the distinction.

    Figure 1.  2D-topographic plots of volatile organic compounds in Marselan wine at different fermentation stages.

    To visually display the dynamic changes of various substances in the fermentation process of Marselan wine, peaks with obvious differences were extracted to form the characteristic fingerprints for comparison (Fig. 2). Each row represents all signal peaks selected from samples at the same stage, and each column means the signal peaks of the same volatile compound in samples from different fermentation stages. Figure 2 shows the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) information for each sample and the differences between samples, where the numbers represent the undetermined substances in the migration spectrum library. The changes of volatile substances in the process of Marselan winemaking is observed by the fingerprint. As shown in Fig. 2 and Table 2, a total of 40 volatile chemical components were detected by qualitative analysis according to their retention time and ion migration time in the HS-GC-IMS spectrum, including 17 esters, eight alcohols, eight aldehydes, two ketones, one organic acid, and four unanalyzed flavor substances. The 12 volatile organic compounds presented dimer due to ionization of the protonated neutral components before entering the drift tube[18]. As can be seen from Table 2, the VOCs in the winemaking process of Marselan wine are mainly composed of esters, alcohols, and aldehydes, which play an important role in the construction of aroma characteristics.

    Figure 2.  Fingerprints of volatile organic compounds in Marselan wine at different fermentation stages.
    Table 2.  Antioxidant activity, total polyphenols, and flavonoids content of Marselan wine at different fermentation stages.
    Winemaking stage TFC (mg CE/L) TPC (mg GAE/L) FRAP (mM FeSO4/mL) ABTs (mM Trolox/L)
    Stage 1 315.71 ± 0.00d 1,083.93 ± 7.79d 34.82c 38.92 ± 2.12c
    Stage 2 1,490.00 ± 7.51c 3,225.51 ± 53.27c 77.32b 52.17 ± 0.95b
    Stage 3 1,510.00 ± 8.88a 3,307.143 ± 41.76b 77.56b 53.04 ± 0.76b
    Stage 4 1,498.57 ± 6.34b 3,370.92 ± 38.29a 85.07a 57.46 ± 2.55a
    Means in the same column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
     | Show Table
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    Esters are produced by the reaction of acids and alcohols in wine, mainly due to the activity of yeast during fermentation[19], and are the main components of fruit juices and wines that produce fruit flavors[20,21]. In this study, it was found that they were the largest detected volatile compound group in Marselan wine samples, which is consistent with previous reports[22]. It can be observed from Table 2 that the contents of most esters increased gradually with the extension of fermentation time, and they mainly began to accumulate in large quantities during the stage of alcohol fermentation. The contents of ethyl hexanoate (fruity), isoamyl acetate (banana, pear), ethyl octanoate (fruity, pineapple, apple, brandy), ethyl acetate (fruity), ethyl formate (spicy, pineapple), and ethyl butanoate (sweet, pineapple, banana, apple) significantly increased at the stage of alcoholic fermentation and maintained a high level in the subsequent fermentation stage (accounting for 86% of the total detected esters). These esters can endow a typical fruity aroma of Marselan wine, and played a positive role in the aroma profiles of Marselan wine. Among them, the content of ethyl acetate is the highest, which is 5,153.79 μg/mL in the final fermentation stage, accounting for 33.6% of the total ester. However, the content of ethyl acetate was relatively high before fermentation, which may be from the metabolic activity of autochthonous microorganisms present in the raw materials. Isobutyl acetate, ethyl 3-methyl butanoate, propyl acetate, ethyl propanoate, ethyl isobutyrate, and ethyl lactate were identified and quantified in all fermentation samples. The total contents of these esters in stage 1 and 4 were 255.28 and 1,533.38 μg/mL, respectively, indicating that they may also have a potential effect on the aroma quality of Marselan wine. The results indicate that esters are an important factor in the formation of flavor during the brewing process of Marselan wine.

    Alcohols were the second important aromatic compound in Marselan wine, which were mainly synthesized by glucose and amino acid decomposition during alcoholic fermentation[23,24]. According to Table 2, eight alcohols including methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, hexanol, amyl alcohol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, and 2-methyl-1-propanol were detected in the four brewing stages of Marselan wine. The contents of ethanol (slightly sweet), 3-methyl-1-butanol (apple, brandy, spicy), and 2-methyl-1-propanol (whiskey) increased gradually during the fermentation process. The sum of these alcohols account for 91%−92% of the total alcohol content, which is the highest content of three alcohols in Marselan wine, and may be contributing to the aromatic and clean-tasting wines. On the contrary, the contents of 1-hexanol and methanol decreased gradually in the process of fermentation. Notably, the content of these rapidly decreased at the stage of alcoholic fermentation, from 2,026.07 to 1,218.98 μg/mL and 662.08 to 76.94 μg/mL, respectively, which may be ascribed to volatiles changed from alcohols to esters throughout fermentation. The reduction of the concentration of some alcohols also alleviates the strong odor during wine fermentation, which plays an important role in the improvement of aroma characteristics.

    Acids are mainly produced by yeast and lactic acid bacteria metabolism at the fermentation stage and are considered to be an important part of the aroma of wine[22]. Only one type of acid (acetic acid) was detected in this experiment, which was less than previously reported, which may be related to different brewing processes. Acetic acid content is an important factor in the balance of aroma and taste of wine. Low contents of volatile acids can provide a mild acidic smell in wine, which is widely considered to be ideal for producing high-quality wines. However, levels above 700 μg/mL can produce a pungent odor and weaken the wine's distinctive flavor[25]. The content of acetic acid increased first and then decreased during the whole fermentation process. The content of acetic acid increased rapidly in the second stage, from 719.91 to 3,914.55 μg/mL reached a peak in the third stage (5,161.81 μg/mL), and decreased to 4,630.65 μg/mL in the last stage of fermentation. Excessive acetic acid in Marselan wine may have a negative impact on its aroma quality.

    It was also found that the composition and content of aldehydes produced mainly through the catabolism of amino acids or decarboxylation of ketoacid were constantly changing during the fermentation of Marselan wines. Eight aldehydes, including furfural, hexanal, heptanal, 2-methylpropanal, 3-methylbutanal, dimethyl sulfide, (E)-2-hexenal, and (E)-2-pentenal were identified in all stage samples. Among them, furfural (caramel bread flavor) and hexanal (grass flavor) are the main aldehydes in Marselan wine, and the content increases slightly with the winemaking process. While other aldehydes such as (E)-2-hexenal (green and fruity), 3-methylbutanol (fresh and malt), and 2-methylpropanal (fresh and malt) were decomposed during brewing, reducing the total content from 536.52 to 85.15 μg/mL, which might potently affect the final flavor of the wine. Only two ketones, acetone, and 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, were detected in the wine samples, and their contents had no significant difference in the fermentation process, which might not affect the flavor of the wine.

    To more intuitively analyze the differences of volatile organic compounds in different brewing stages of Marselan wine samples, principal component analysis was performed[2628]. As presented in Fig. 3, the points corresponding to one sample group were clustered closely on the score plot, while samples at different fermentation stages were well separated in the plot. PC1 (79%) and PC2 (18%) together explain 97% of the total variance between Marselan wine samples, indicating significant changes in volatile compounds during the brewing process. As can be seen from the results in Fig. 3, samples of stages 1, 2, and 3 can be distinguished directly by PCA, suggesting that there are significant differences in aroma components in these three fermentation stages. Nevertheless, the separation of stage 3 and stage 4 samples is not very obvious and both presented in the same quadrant, which means that their volatile characteristics were highly similar, indicating that the volatile components of Marselan wine are formed in stage 3 during fermentation (Fig. S1). The above results prove that the unique aroma fingerprints of the samples from the distinct brewing stages of Marselan wine were successfully constructed using the HS-GC-IMS method.

    Figure 3.  PCA based on the signal intensity obtained with different fermentation stages of Marselan wine.

    Based on the results of the PCA, OPLS-DA was used to eliminate the influence of uncontrollable variables on the data through permutation test, and to quantify the differences between samples caused by characteristic flavors[28]. Figure 4 revealed that the point of flavor substances were colored according to their density and the samples obtained at different fermentation stages of wine have obvious regional characteristics and good spatial distribution. In addition, the reliability of the OPLS-DA model was verified by the permutation method of 'Y-scrambling'' validation. In this method, the values of the Y variable were randomly arranged 200 times to re-establish and analyze the OPLS-DA model. In general, the values of R2 (y) and Q2 were analyzed to assess the predictability and applicability of the model. The results of the reconstructed model illustrate that the slopes of R2 and Q2 regression lines were both greater than 0, and the intercept of the Q2 regression line was −0.535 which is less than 0 (Fig. 5). These results indicate that the OPLS-DA model is reliable and there is no fitting phenomenon, and this model can be used to distinguish the four brewing stages of Marselan wine.

    Figure 4.  Scores plot of OPLS-DA model of volatile components in Marselan wine at different fermentation stages.
    Figure 5.  Permutation test of OPLS-DA model of volatile components in Marselan wine at different fermentation stages (n = 200).

    VIP is the weight value of OPLS-DA model variables, which was used to measure the influence intensity and explanatory ability of accumulation difference of each component on classification and discrimination of each group of samples. In previous studies, VIP > 1 is usually used as a screening criterion for differential volatile substances[2830]. In this study, a total of 22 volatile substances had VIP values above 1, indicating that these volatiles could function as indicators of Marselan wine maturity during fermentation (see Fig. 6). These volatile compounds included furfural, ethyl lactate, heptanal, dimethyl sulfide, 1-propanol, ethyl isobutyrate, propyl acetate, isobutyl acetate, ethanol, ethyl hexanoate, acetic acid, methanol, ethyl formate, ethyl 3-methylbutanoate, ethyl acetate, hexanal, isoamyl acetate, 2-methylpropanal, 2-methyl-1-propanol, and three unknown compounds.

    Figure 6.  VIP plot of OPLS-DA model of volatile components in Marselan wine at different fermentation stages.

    This study focuses on the change of volatile flavor compounds and antioxidant activity in Marselan wine during different brewing stages. A total of 40 volatile aroma compounds were identified and collected at different stages of Marselan winemaking. The contents of volatile aroma substances varied greatly at different stages, among which alcohols and esters were the main odors in the fermentation stage. The proportion of furfural was small, but it has a big influence on the wine flavor, which can be used as one of the standards to measure wine flavor. Flavonoids and phenols were not only factors of flavor formation, but also important factors to improve the antioxidant capacity of Marselan wine. In this study, the aroma of Marselan wines in different fermentation stages was analyzed, and its unique aroma fingerprint was established, which can provide accurate and scientific judgment for the control of the fermentation process endpoint, and has certain guiding significance for improving the quality of Marselan wines (Table S1). In addition, this work will provide a new approach for the production management of Ningxia's special wine as well as the development of the native Chinese wine industry.

  • The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: study conception and design: Gong X, Fang L; data collection: Fang L, Li Y; analysis and interpretation of results: Qi N, Chen T; draft manuscript preparation: Fang L. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

  • The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

  • This work were supported by the project of Hainan Province Science and Technology Special Fund (ZDYF2023XDNY031) and the Central Public-interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund for Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences in China (Grant No. 1630122022003).

  • The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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  • Cite this article

    Qiao L, Deng X, Yu X, Feng M, Jiao Y, et al. 2024. Appropriate sodium nitroprusside dose contributes to the quality maintenance of fresh walnuts. Food Innovation and Advances 3(1): 42−51 doi: 10.48130/fia-0024-0006
    Qiao L, Deng X, Yu X, Feng M, Jiao Y, et al. 2024. Appropriate sodium nitroprusside dose contributes to the quality maintenance of fresh walnuts. Food Innovation and Advances 3(1): 42−51 doi: 10.48130/fia-0024-0006

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Appropriate sodium nitroprusside dose contributes to the quality maintenance of fresh walnuts

Food Innovation and Advances  3 2024, 3(1): 42−51  |  Cite this article

Abstract: Fresh walnuts (Juglans regia L.) are challenging to store due to their high water content and delicate green appearance. It has been reported that sodium nitroprusside (SNP, a nitric oxide donor) can promote stress tolerance. However, whether SNP affects the postharvest quality of fresh walnuts remains unknown. This research showed that appropriate SNP treatment contributed to walnut preservation; in particular, 0.5 mmol/L SNP treatment resulted in a better appearance and less decay (59.7%). Compared with the control, this treatment not only increased the levels of proteases related to fresh walnut disease (chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase) but also increased the overall antioxidant level and reduced oxidant damage. Moreover, respiratory metabolism and ethylene release were greatly suppressed (9.5%), and the overall sensory evaluation did not reveal any adverse effects associated with a lower acid or peroxide content. Thus, it was inferred that the optimal SNP dose activated disease-related enzymes, mediated the physiological metabolism rate, regulated the ROS-redox balance and therefore reduced decay and maintained the walnut quality. This is the first report of SNP (NO) application for the preservation of fresh walnuts and may provide information to facilitate practical application of this potential innovation.

    • Walnuts (Juglans regia L.), known as one of the 'four big nuts of the world' along with hazelnuts, almonds, and cashews, are rich in various nutrients, such as unsaturated fatty acids and minerals[1]. Currently, the consumption of fresh walnuts has increased due to their fresh flavour, unique taste and crispness[2]. However, their high water content (≥ 17%) increases the physiological metabolism rate and promotes walnut decay. In addition, their delicate green appearance can be easily lost by browning and discolouration (degreening) during storage[3,4]. Maintaining the postharvest quality of fresh walnuts has become a notable research topic of considerable importance.

      Researchers have developed several physical and chemical technologies for fresh walnut preservation, such as 60 Co-γ radiation[3], 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)[5], cold plasma[1], improved atmosphere packaging[6], sodium diacetate[7] and ClO2 treatments[8]. Ye et al.[6] reported that treatment with a modified atmosphere (5% O2, 7.5% CO2) promoted the activities of walnut superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbic acid peroxidase (APX), inhibited ethylene production, reduced the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and delayed browning. Ma et al.[3] found that 60 Co-γ radiation reduced the oxidative degradation of walnuts, thus maintaining better sensory quality and freshness. Nevertheless, it is difficult to apply the abovementioned technologies in practice owing to their extensive technology requirements and limited applicability.

      Nitric oxide (NO) is a widely distributed signalling molecule that not only participates in multiple reactions during plant growth, development, maturation, and senescence but also has the ability to induce defence responses and stress tolerance[9,10]. Sodium nitroprusside (SNP) is a common NO donor, and it can have the same effect as fumigation with NO gas[11,12]. Recently, there has been an increase in the application of exogenous SNP (NO) on vegetables and fruits[11,13]. Yang et al.[14] found that NO reduced the decay rate of navel orange fruits and the lesion area on the fruits. Ren et al.[15] reported that SNP treatment not only decreased the rot index but also maintained green colour and reduced weight loss of in the fruit. Additionally, pear browning discolouration was greatly delayed (15 d) by SNP treatment compared with control samples[12].

      To date, SNP (NO) is known to function as a fruit and vegetable preservative with the advantages of easy operation, low cost and low safety hazard risk, while there have been few related reports on fresh walnuts. In this study, the ascendancy of SNP (NO) on the preservation of fresh walnuts was assessed. The decay development and colour degradation were recorded and the regulation of reactive oxygen metabolism, lipid oxidation, and sensory qualities was evaluated to achieve some understanding of the application potential of SNP (NO) treatment for fresh walnut preservation.

    • 'Liaohe No. 1' fresh walnuts (22−24 g) with green husks at maturity were obtained from the local planting base (Jizhou District, Tianjin, China). Walnuts were stored overnight at 24°C before subsequent sample processing. SNP was purchased from Biyuntian Biotechnology Company in Shanghai, China. The samples were used within three weeks.

      The 'Liaohe No. 1' fresh walnuts were devided into four groups randomly and evenly and soaked for 30 min (SNP solutions with concentrations of 0.0 mmol/L (control), 0.1, 0.5, and 1.0 mmol/L). After removal, the surface water was dried in a plastic container, placed in a polyethylene preservation bag, and stored at 24°C.

    • Colour parameters were surveyed with a portable precision colorimeter WR-18 (Weifu Optoelectronic Technology Co., Shenzhen, China), The total chromatic difference (ΔE) was calculaed from colorimetric units as ΔE = (a*2 + b*2 + c*2)1/2. After calibration with a standard white reflector plate, six walnuts were taken from each treatment and values were determined at four different places in each walnut.

      The browning or decay indices of walnuts were assessed by a visual check. Each walnut was graded on a six-point impact degree: 1, 0% of walnut surface undergoes browning or disease; 2, 1% to 20%; 3, 21% to 40%; 4, 41% to 60%; 5, 61% to 80%; and 6, 81% to 100% of walnut surface undergoes browning or disease[4,8].

    • The method of Li et al.[16] was used to determine the CHI activity in fresh walnuts. For enzyme extraction, 10 g of walnut peel was weighed into a precooled mortar, and 10.0 mL of precooled extraction buffer (containing 5 mmol/L β-Mercaptoethanol and 1 mmol/L EDTA) was mixed and ground, centrifuged in a refrigerated centrifuge for 30 min (4 °C, 12000× under g conditions). The supernatant was retained. For enzyme preparation, protein was precipitated using the acetone method. The supernatant was mixed with five times its volume of precooled acetone and then left to stand overnight at −20 °C, and the precipitate was dried with nitrogen gas after centrifugation for 20 min. The precipitate was dissolved in acetic acid sodium acetate buffer (50 mmol/L, pH 5.2) to obtain the enzyme extract. Two test tubes were used, and 0.5 mL of colloidal chitin suspension (10 g/L) and 0.5 mL of acetic acid sodium acetate buffer solution (50 mmol/L, pH 5.2) were added. A total of 0.5 mL of enzyme extract solution was taken to the reaction tube, and 0.5 mL of boiled enzyme extract solution was taken to the control tube. The solution was shaken well and placed in a 37°C water bath for 1 h, 0.1 mL of desalinated snail enzyme (30 g/L) was added, maintained for 1 h, 0.2 mL of potassium tetraborate solution (0.6 mol/L) was added, mixed well and kept for 3 min in a boiling water bath. After cooling the solution, 2.0 mL of p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde solution was added. After thorough mixing, a colour reaction was carried out at 37 °C for 20 min. Subsequently, the solution absorbance was determined at 585 nm. One CHI activity unit was the amount of enzyme required to break down chitin and produces 1 N-acetylglucosamine molecule per gram of sample per second, equivalent to 10−9 mol.

      The extraction and preparation of the GLU enzyme solution were the same as described for the CHI enzyme solution, and the determination method was that of Li et al.[16]. 0.1 mL of Kunbu polysaccharide solution (4 g/L) was added to two test tubes, 0.1 mL of enzyme extraction solution was taken to the reaction tube, and 0.1 mL of boiled enzyme extraction solution was added to the control tube. The solution was mixed well and left for 40 min in a 37°C water bath. Then, 1.8 mL of distilled water and 1.5 mL of DNS reagent were taken into test tubes sequentially. The solution was kept in a boiling water bath for 3 min and dissolved with distilled water to 25 mL after cooling. The mixed solution absorbance was obtained at 540 nm. One GLU activity unit is produced by the enzymatic decomposition of laminarin at a rate of one gram of sample per second, resulting in the release of 10−9 mol of glucose.

    • Five fresh walnuts were randomly placed into the inner cavity, and the internal gas (1 mL) was extracted using a syringe for each treatment. The method of Miranda et al.[17] was referenced to analyze the ethylene (C2H4) concentrations operating a gas chromatograph (Agilent GC7890A, USA). The carrier gas was N2 and the detector was a flame ionization detector (FID). The temperatures of the oven, injector, and detector were 60, 220, and 240 °C, respectively.

      Five walnuts were randomly placed in the air chamber of the fruit and vegetable respiration analyser (JFQ-3150H, Beijing, China) according to the method of Du et al.[5]. The detection time was 3 min, and the weight and CO2 changes were recorded.

    • Based on actual experiments, previous methods were optimized to determine the rate of O2•− production[18]. Fresh walnut peel (2 g) was added to a precooled mortar, 5 mL of extraction buffer (containing 2% PVP, 0.3% Triton X-100, and 1 mmol/L EDTA) was mixed, and the sample was ground under ice bath surroundings and centrifuged at 4°C and 12,000× g for 20 min. Then, 1 mL of the supernatant, 1 mL of 50 mmol/L pH 7.8 phosphate buffer and 1 mL of 1 mmol/L hydroxylamine hydrochloride solution were sequentially added. The tube was mixed well and kept warm in a 25°C water bath for 1 h. Then, 1 mL of 17 mmol/L p-aminobenzenesulfonic acid solution and 1 mL of 7 mmol/L α-Naphthylamine solution were added, and a 20-min colour reaction was conducted in a 25 °C water bath. Immediately, the mixed solution absorbance was determined at 530 nm (reference control: the same as the above method but without 1 h at 25 °C insulation). The results are expressed as µmol/min·g.

      Previous methods were exploited to determine the the H2O2 content[19]. Fresh walnut peel (2 g) was weighed into a mortar, 5 mL of precooled acetone was added at −20 °C to a fume hood. The sample was ground fully and centrifuged at 4 °C and 12,000× for 20 min. Then 1 ml of the sample extraction solution was dissolved to 0.1 mL of a 10% solution of titanium tetrachloride in hydrochloric acid, along with 0.2 mL of concentrated aqueous ammonia. The solution was mixed well and reacted for 5 min. The samples were centrifuged and the supernatants discarded. The precooled acetone at −20 °C was required to repeatedly washed the precipitate to rid the pigment. Eventually, precipitate was completely dissolved in 3 mL of 2 mol/L sulfuric acid solution. A wavelength at 412 nm was used to obtain absorbance, the results are expressed as µmol/g.

    • The SOD activity was revised and measured by Lotfi et al.[20]. Two grams of fresh walnut peel sample was weighed in a precooled mortar. A total of 5.0 mL of extraction buffer (including 5 mmol/L DTT and 5% PVP) was mixed. The mixture was ground and centrifuged for 30 min at 4 °C and 12,000× g. A total of 1.7 mL of phosphate buffer solution (50 mmol/L, pH 7.8), 0.3 mL of methionine solution (130 mmol/L), 0.3 mL of nitrogen blue tetrazole solution (750 µmol/L), 0.3 mL of LEDTA-Na2 solution (100 µmol/L), and 0.1 mL of enzyme extraction solution were added sequentially to a glass tube. Finally, the reaction was initiated by adding 0.3 mL of riboflavin solution (20 µmol/L). Buffer solution was added instead of enzyme extraction solution to the two control tubes. After mixing, one control tube was layed in a dark location, and the other control tube and measuring tube were layed under a 4,000 lx fluorescent lamp for a 15-min colour reaction. Then, they were placed in a dark place to terminate the reaction. A light source tube was used as a reference for zero adjustment to adjust the absorbance value of other tubes at 560 nm. The results are showed as U/g.

      Previously published methods were refered to acquire the CAT activity of fresh walnut peel[21]. The preparation method of the enzyme extract was the same as that detailed in a previous paragraph. 2.9 mL of H2O2 (20 mmol/L) and 0.1 mL of enzyme extract constituted the enzymatic reaction system. The absorbance value was measured at 240 nm. The absorbance at 15 s of reaction was taken as the initial value, and then the measurement was continuously recorded every 30 s to obtain at least six data points. One CAT activity unit was a 0.01 decrease in absorbance change per minute per gram of sample. The results are expressed as U/g.

      The ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activity in fresh walnut peels was determined based on the methods of Ye et al. without modification[6]. The APX activity was calculated based on the decrease in absorbance of the reaction system at 290 nm per unit time (ascorbic acid oxidation). The results are showed as U/g.

      The method used by Qiao et al.[22] was slightly modified to determine the peroxidase (POD) activity in fresh walnut peels. Two grams of walnut peel sample was weighed, and 5.0 mL of extraction buffer (containing 1% Triton X-100, 4% PVPP, and 1 mmol/L PEG) was added. The sample was ground under ice bath conditions and centrifuged for 30 min at 4 °C and 12,000× g. The measured reaction system comprise 0.5 mL of enzyme extract and 3.0 mL of guaiacol solution (25 mmol/L), with 0.2 mL of hydrogen peroxide solution (0.5 mol/L) used to initiate the reaction. The absorbance change was surveyed at 470 nm per minute. One POD active unit increased the absorbance variation by 1 per min per gram of sample. The results are shown as U/g.

    • Sensory evaluation of fresh walnut kernels was conducted on day 0 and on the last day of storage, referring to the evaluation method of Habibie et al.[23]. A 15-person evaluation team was formed, and the seed coat colour, kernel colour, odour, taste, and crispness were rated based on a 9-point scoring system (9, like very much; 1, dislike very much). The average score of these five aspects was denoted 'overall consumer acceptance'.

      Walnut oil was gained through Soxhlet extraction and based on the method of Wang et al.[24]. Walnut kernel samples (10 g) were put into the extractor. Petroleum ether and extract were added for 24 h, and the heating temperature of the water bath was maintained at 40−50 °C. Then, the mixture was rotary evaporated to remove excess petroleum ether. The AV and PV of the oil sample were determined using the titration methods in GB/T 5009.229-2016 and GB/T 5009.227-2016.

    • SPSS software version 22.0 (IBM SPSS Statistics 22) was used to perform statistical analysis. Data are indicated as the mean ± standard error from triplicate samples. The differences of the different time and treatments on two factors were discussed by two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan's post hoc comparison method was used to compare the obtained data multiple times.

    • Color degradation is a crucial problem occurring during fresh walnut storage[8]. In this study, the appearance of walnuts treated with 0.5 mmol/L SNP solution (20 d) was the most similar to the original appearance (0 d), with a fresh greenness and smooth surface (Fig. 1a). The other groups showed obvious colour degradation (green to faint yellow) and epidermal shrinkage, and the control group and 1.0 mmol/L SNP group also exhibited extensive browning. Figure 1b further reveals that walnuts treated with medium and low SNP concentrations exhibited less browning throughout the whole period. On the 20th day, the browning index decreased by approximately 12.6% and 31.3% in response to 0.1 and 0.5 mmol/L SNP treatment respectively, compared to that in the control samples. Similarly, these two groups maintained lower a* and ΔE values (Fig. 1c & d), and most effectively delayed the process of skin discolouration from green to red and then brown. There was no obvious difference (p 0.05) in colour parameter contrast with the control group at the high SNP level (except on the 20th day). In addition, water loss is another important factor leading to the shrinkage of the walnut skin[25], and Fig. 1e shows no obvious effect was found among the four groups, indicating that the impact of SNP treatment on the water loss rate of fresh walnuts was relatively small.

      Figure 1. 

      The appearance quality and freshness of fresh walnut peels under different treatments. (a) Photographs, (b) browning index, (c) a* value changes, (d) ΔE total chromatic difference, (e) weight of loss in distilled water (Control) and SNP (0.1%, 0.5%, and 1.0%) during storage at 24 °C. Values are presented as the means ± standard errors. Lowercase letters indicate different processing groups under the same time conditions; capital letters indicate different times at the same treatment group level. The different letters indicate significant difference (p 0.05).

      The appearance and colour were consistent, as a lower browning index and colour change were maintained in lower and mid concentration SNP treatments. These results are consistent with those of Adhikary et al., who revealed that SNP (NO) treatment had a positive effect on alleviating early fruit colour transformation and browning[12]. In terms of the dose effect, an optimal dose of SNP was determined ( 0.5 mmol/L). The higher the concentration was, the better the quality. Zhu & Zhou reported NO has a dual effect, and excessive SNP caused an increase in the NO concentration. The interaction between NO and O2•− results in the generation of a large amount of peroxynitrite, which produce a negative impact on the fruit[25,12]. This may be the reason that the quality of the high-dose SNP-treated walnuts remained similar to that of the control walnuts instead of being the best. Thus, it is reasonable to believe that walnuts treated with the appropriate concentrations of SNP can improve or maintain fresh quality and prevent shrinkage and browning.

    • Fresh walnuts are toward to decay and disease infection after harvesting[8]. Ren et al.[15] treated mango fruits with SNP, which greatly reduced the frequency of fruit rot and the probability of disease occurrence. Figure 2a shows the effect of different concentrations of SNP on the decay rate of fresh walnuts. There was no obvious difference between the high SNP (1.0 mmol/L)-treated walnuts and the control samples except on the last day, when a lower degree of decay occurred. Moreover, the medium and low SNP concentrations (0.1 and 0.5 mmol/L) had superior inhibitory effects, at 50% and 24.4% of that of the control treatments after 20 d. Notably, the decay index of SNP (0.5 mmol/L) on day 20 was even lower than that of control on day 15. The fruit integrity was higher, significantly reducing the rot rate of walnuts. This is in line with SNP treatment producing a positive effect on preventing decay in fragrant pear fruits[12].

      Figure 2. 

      The decay rate and disease resistance of fresh walnut peels under different treatments. (a) Decay index, (b) CHI activities, (c) GLU activities in distilled water (Control) and SNP (0.1%, 0.5%, and 1.0%) during storage at 24°C. Values are presented as the means ± standard errors. Lowercase letters indicate different processing groups under the same time conditions; capital letters indicate different times at the same treatment group level. The different letters indicate significant difference (p0.05).

      Additionally, CHI and GLU are two significant proteins that are commonly found in plants and associated with disease progression (PR), and enhancing their activity can assist plant disease resistance[26]. In Fig. 2b & c, the activity of these two disease-related enzymes significantly increased within 20 d. The CHI activity with 0.1 and 0.5 mmol/L SNP treatment groups remained high and stable for 20 d, increasing on average by 14.5% and 9.0%, respectively, compared to the control group. No difference was observed between the 1.0 mmol/L SNP treatment group and the control group except on day 5. It has also been considered that the combined enzymatic action of CHI and GLU results in the inhibition of fungal growth and disease occurrence[26]. The greater the CHI activity is, the greater the ability of the protein to break down the fungal cell wall[27]. Figure 2c shows that GLU activity was enhanced by SNP treatment, with medium and lower levels increasing these activities and the highest improving activities slightly. Notably, on day 5, the activity increased by approximately 39.7% and 18.1% in the 0.5 and 0.1 mmol/L SNP treatment groups, respectively, compared to the control groups. These results are consistent with those of Zheng et al.[28] and Hu et al.[29] which found that the invasion of pathogens led to a rapid response and enhanced the activity of CHI and GLU during the early stage as a defence, and stabilization at a higher activity during the later stage was beneficial for improving fruit resistance, which prevented further infection of pathogens into fruit tissue. Additionally, Hu et al.[27] suggested that exogenous NO enhanced the CHI and GLU activities in post-harvest fruits as well as improved their resistance to pathogens. Thus, it is reasonable to believe that 0.5 mmol/L SNP treatment significantly improved the activity of the important proteins related to PR (CHI and GLU), enhanced the disease resistance and reduced the decay rate of fresh walnuts.

    • The rapid accumulation of ethylene accelerates the process of fruit ripening and ageing, serving an indirect indicator for assessing the storage life of fruits, and is closely related to the respiratory metabolic rate[25,30]. The ethylene production rate of all fresh walnuts continuously increased for 20 d (Fig. 3a). The control group and the high-concentration 1.0 mmol/L SNP treatment showed no significant difference (p > 0.05). An increase in the ethylene content accelerates fruit ripening and ageing, and delaying the ethylene release can delay walnut ageing and increase the storage time[31]. The 0.1 and 0.5 mmol/L SNP treated groups produced lower levels during storage, and the ethylene production rates were reduced by 2.0% and 3.6% compared to the control group on the 20th day. Similarly, an increase in the respiratory rate can easily lead to enhanced fruit metabolism, thereby reducing the quality of fruit storage[30]. SNP treatment of 0.5 mmol/L also resulted in the lowest respiratory rate (Fig. 3b) among the four groups throughout storage. On the 20th day, the respiratory rate of 0.5 mmol/L SNP walnuts was diminished by 14.0% compared with that of the control group. This result is consistent with the findings of Chen et al.[32], who showed that SNP suppressed ethylene production and the respiratory rate, delayed the loss of fruit quality.

      Figure 3. 

      The ethylene production rate and respiration rate of fresh walnut peels under different treatments. (a) Ethylene production rate, (b) respiration rate in distilled water (Control) and SNP (0.1%, 0.5%, and 1.0%) during storage at 24 °C. Values are presented as the means ± standard errors. Lowercase letters indicate different processing groups under the same time conditions; capital letters indicate different times at the same treatment group level. The different letters indicate significant difference (p0.05).

      The ethylene production rate and respiratory rate are key physiological parameters that directly determine postharvest quality and storage time. Low- and middle-concentration SNP treatment significantly controlled the rate of increase in these parameters, which may be related to the regulation of key enzymes and gene expression. Zhu & Zhou[25] reported that the most remarked effect was caused by a moderate concentration of SNP, whereas a high dose of SNP harmed the fruits, and a low dose of SNP had little effect on strawberry storage life. These authors suggested that a suitable SNP could effectively inhibited the activity of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase and decreased the content of ACC, which contributed to the decrease in ethylene production and the respiratory rate. Cheng et al.[30] proposed that the inhibition of ACC oxidase (ACO) activity and the transcription of the MA-ACO1 gene by NO resulted in decreased ethylene synthesis and a delay in the ripening of banana slice. Consequently, proper SNP treatment may regulate ethylene pathway and delay the respiratory metabolic rates of walnuts and their progression towards decay and ageing.

    • O2•− and H2O2 are two major reactive oxygen species (ROS). The excessive production of ROS leads to oxidative damage and accelerates fruit senescence and deterioration, resulting in a shortened postharvest storage life[33]. Figure 4a & b show that the O2•− production and H2O2 content of all the fresh walnuts increased within 20 d. The increase rates of the 0.1 and 0.5 mmol/L SNP treated groups were obviously lower than those in the other groups, particularly within 10 to 20 d. Controlling the accumulation of ROS could slow the fruit ripening process and reduce the occurrence of spoilage to some extent, similar the findings of Zhang et al.[34]. They showed that SNP treatment decreased H2O2 and O2•− accumulation by 1.2 and 1.4 times compared to that in control rambutans and deferred the deterioration of fruit postharvest quality. Additionally, although SNP treatment with a high-concentration delayed the accumulation of H2O2 and O2•− on the 5th day, it resulted in a rapid increase in the following days, which was not conducive to long-term preservation.

      Figure 4. 

      The ROS-redox balance of fresh walnut peels under different treatments. (a) O2 production rate, (b) H2O2 content, (c) SOD: superoxide dismutase, (d) CAT: catalase, (e) APX: ascorbic acid peroxidase, (f) POD: peroxidase in distilled water (Control) and SNP (0.1%, 0.5%, and 1.0%) during storage at 24°C. Values are presented as the means ± standard errors. Lowercase letters indicate different processing groups under the same time conditions; capital letters indicate different times at the same treatment group level. The different letters indicate significant difference (p0.05).

      SOD can remove O2 and is considered the first line of defence against the powerful toxicity of superoxide[35]. Figure 4c shows that SOD activity peaked on the 10th day. The activity in the 0.5 mmol/L SNP treatment group was approximately 13.2% and 15.0% higher than that in the control group on the 10th and 20th days, respectively (p0.05), demonstrating that high SOD activity was induced by the intermediate SNP concentration. CAT is an oxidoreductase that primarily metabolizes H2O2 into H2O and O2, reducing oxidative damage[1]. The CAT activity exhibited a gradually increasing trend within 15 d and then rapidly decreased (Fig. 4d). In the later stage of storage (10−20 d), the 0.5 mmol/L SNP treatment produced higher CAT activity, which was 10.9% higher than that of the control group. Moreover, APX can also interact with CAT to remove H2O2 from fruit tissue, protect the tissue from free radicals, and enhance fruit stress resistance[36]. In this study, there was little difference in APX activity among the various treatments (Fig. 4e), except on days 5 and 20 in the 0.5 mmol/L SNP treatment. POD is an important enzyme not only related to antioxidant defence systems but also contributes to browning[15]. Figure 4f shows that POD activity peaked on the 10th day, and was enhanced by approximately 12.2% at 20 d by 0.5 mmol/L SNP treatment than that of the control group.

      The antioxidant enzymes APX, CAT, SOD and POD constitute a powerful protective system in fruit that can effectively eliminate ROS and free radicals. SNP treatment not only enhanced the antioxidant activities of CAT, SOD and POD but also reduced the H2O2 and superoxide anion radical levels compared with those in the control group. The increase in these enzyme activities indicated that the antioxidant capacity of the fruit improved, which may help maintain its freshness and alleviate browning and ageing[11,37]. The above results are consistent with those of Ren et al.[15], who reported that SNP sensibly enhanced fruit antioxidant enzyme activity, suppressed the respiratory rate, and decreased the peel colour index, and the rot index in mango fruit. Jing et al.[35] also showed that treatment with an appropriate concentration of NO delayed the decrease in the mitochondrial permeability transition and reduced the content of ROS in mitochondria. Therefore, it is concluded that proper SNP treatment can enhance antioxidant levels, reduce ROS accumulation and help maintain postharvest quality (Fig. 5).

      Figure 5. 

      Possible mechanism whereby treatments of SNP treatment maintain the postharvest quality of fresh walnuts.

    • The sensory quality of walnut kernels to some extent reflects the storage quality and acceptability for consumers[3]. The higher the sensory evaluation score, the greater the quality of the fresh walnut kernels. Table 1 shows that the sensory quality of walnut kernels decreased on day 20, particularly as the seeds browned. In terms of concentration, 0.5 mmol/L SNP treatment achieved the highest score, and the overall consumer acceptance was 30% higher compared to the control group. Not only the browning degree of walnut seeds and kernels was the lowest, but also the odour, taste, and crispness were significantly improved (p0.05). These results were similar to those of Dai et al.[38], in which potatoes soaked in SNP minimized the damage from surface colour and chewing features (34.3%), resulting in optimal storage quality and acceptance.

      Table 1.  Sensory evaluation, acid value, and peroxide value of fresh walnut kernels in distilled water (Control) and SNP (0.1%, 0.5%, and 1.0%) during storage at 24°C.

      0 d20 d
      CK0.1 mmol/L SNP0.5 mmol/L SNP1.0 mmol/L SNPCK0.1 mmol/L SNP0.5 mmol/L SNP1.0 mmol/L SNP
      Color of seeds9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA3.40 ± 0.51bB3.87 ± 0.64abB4.33 ± 0.72aB3.53 ± 0.52bB
      Color of walnut kernel9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA6.67 ± 0.72bB6.93 ± 0.80abB7.33 ± 0.49aB6.60 ± 0.51bB
      Odor9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA4.20 ± 0.77bB5.53 ± 0.64aB6.07 ± 0.80aB4.13 ± 0.52bB
      Taste9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA4.33 ± 0.62bB5.33 ± 0.90aB5.67 ± 0.98aB4.26 ± 0.59bB
      Crispness9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA4.87 ± 0.64bcB5.47 ± 0.64bB6.67 ± 0.90aB4.53 ± 0.74cB
      Overll consumer
      acceptance
      9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA9.00 ± 0.00aA4.69 ± 0.26cB5.43 ± 0.45bB6.01 ± 0.29aB4.61 ± 0.31cB
      AV (mg/g)0.39 ± 0.01aB0.37 ± 0.04aB0.36 ± 0.04aB0.37 ± 0.04aB0.99 ± 0.05aA0.87 ± 0.07aA0.71 ± 0.06bA0.95 ± 0.09aA
      POV (mg/100g)0.11 ± 0.01aB0.10 ± 0.01aB0.11 ± 0.01aB0.10 ± 0.01aB0.32 ± 0.03aA0.28 ± 0.01abA0.25 ± 0.01bA0.31 ± 0.02aA
      Lowercase letters indicate different processing groups under the same time conditions; uppercase letters indicate different times at the same treatment group level. The different letters indicate significant difference (p 0.05).

      Additionally, walnuts are rich in unsaturated fatty acids, and their AV and PV are important indicators for measuring fat oxidation and rancidity, reflecting the edible value and safety of walnut kernels[7]. The AV and PV continuously increased with the increasing storage time in this study and remained within the safe range (AV ≤ 3 mg/g, PV ≤ 80 mg/100 g, based on fat). The 0.5 and 0.1 mmol/L SNP treatment groups exhibited controlled increases (P ≤ 0.05). Notabely, the AV was reduced by 8.4% and 25.3%, and the PV was significantly reduced by 9.7% and 19.4%, respectively, compared with the control walnuts. Dai et al.[39] also stated that SNP treatment increased the expression levels of key genes associated with fatty acid synthesis, maintained membrane structural integrity, and slowed the occurance of internal oxidation and rancidity. Therefore, it was inferred that 0.5 mmol/L SNP can control rancidity and oxidation, maintain good sensory characteristics, prolong the fruit quality and improve sales quality of fresh walnut kernels.

    • In this study, low- and moderate-concentration SNP treatment effectively preserved the postharvest quality of fresh walnuts, and 0.5 mmol/L caused the least decay and colour change. SNP activated two crucial disease-related proteins (CHI and GLU), and retarded, to some extent, respiratory metabolism and ethylene production in walnuts. Furthermore, the metabolism of reactive oxygen species (O2•− and H2O2) was regulated and the antioxidant enzymes activities such as SOD, CAT, APX, and POD increased. Sensory evaluation revealed a greater overall consumer acceptance, and lower levels of AV and PV were achieved by SNP treatment. It was concluded that optimal SNP treatment may mediate the physiological metabolic rate, activate disease-related enzymes, regulate the ROS-redox balance, and therefore maintain postharvest quality (Fig. 5). This study offers an innovative solution for promoting environmentally friendly and minimizing resource waste.

      • This project was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 32001765. No. 32272395); Postdoctoral Research Foundation of China (No. 2022M712375); and Open Project Program of State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety (No. SKLFNS-KF-202316).

      • The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: conceptualization: Qiao L, Deng X, Jiao Y; methodology: Yu X, Jiao Y; investigation: Yu X, Jiao Y; data curation: Deng X, Feng M; formal analysis and visualization: Qiao L, Jiao Y; writing-original draft: Qiao L, Deng X; writing-review & editing: Qiao L, Deng X, Feng M; funding acquisition: Qiao L, Lu L, Wang Y; supervision: Lu L, Liu X. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

      • All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

      • The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

      • Copyright: © 2024 by the author(s). Published by Maximum Academic Press on behalf of China Agricultural University, Zhejiang University and Shenyang Agricultural University. This article is an open access article distributed under Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
    Figure (5)  Table (1) References (39)
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    Qiao L, Deng X, Yu X, Feng M, Jiao Y, et al. 2024. Appropriate sodium nitroprusside dose contributes to the quality maintenance of fresh walnuts. Food Innovation and Advances 3(1): 42−51 doi: 10.48130/fia-0024-0006
    Qiao L, Deng X, Yu X, Feng M, Jiao Y, et al. 2024. Appropriate sodium nitroprusside dose contributes to the quality maintenance of fresh walnuts. Food Innovation and Advances 3(1): 42−51 doi: 10.48130/fia-0024-0006

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