REVIEW   Open Access    

Recent progress and prospects in production and identification of umami peptides from marine proteins

  • Authors contributed equally: Di Hu, Zhenxiao Zheng

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  • Umami peptides, the flavor compounds mainly derived from natural proteins, provide a pleasant taste for humans and exhibit a variety of biological activities, such as antioxidant and lipid-lowering properties. Marine proteins, which serve as excellent sources of umami peptides, have become a focal point of research. This review introduces the research progress on reported marine umami peptides. Firstly, it discusses the structural characteristics of umami peptides and the mechanism behind their formation to create an umami taste. It then presents several commonly used techniques for preparing and regulating umami peptides while summarizing the advantages and disadvantages of each technique. Finally, this review describes the potential application prospects for core technologies within Industry 4.0—such as molecular simulation, artificial intelligence, big data analysis, cloud computing, and blockchain technology—which could bring new opportunities for the development of marine umami peptides.
  • One of the traditional techniques for increasing value and reducing agricultural produce spoilage is drying. Where more expensive alternative storage methods are used, this is especially crucial[1]. Through the addition of one or more energy sources, moisture from a product is removed throughout the drying process[2,3]. The physicochemical characteristics of the fruit are changed by drying, which can improve the flavor and texture of specific foods like raisins and dates[2]. It lowers the product's water activity (aw), and when the aw value drops to less than 0.6, it inhibits the growth and spread of spoiling bacteria[4]. Drying also reduces product weight, which reduces packing, storage, and shipping costs and ensures off-seasonal production[5,6]. The demand for dried fruit is rising globally as people become more health conscious[7].

    Worldwide pomegranate production is steadily rising, although large post-harvest losses are also common, according to reports[8]. When fruit is unsuitable for standard processing methods due to fruit cracking or sunburn, drying is a great way to reduce post-harvest losses because it extends shelf life and can be utilized to reduce food waste[9]. Numerous products, such as pharmaceuticals, snacks, cereals, quick drinks, and other confectionary items, employ dried pomegranate arils[10]. Dried pomegranate arils, also known as anardana, are utilized both medicinally and culinarily in several regions of the world, including India[11]. Dried arils can therefore be quite useful as value-added items that generate revenue. According to research conducted in the Indian Ramban area, anardana trade accounts for at least 41% of all annual household income[11].

    There are many different drying techniques. The most popular are freeze-drying, hot air drying, vacuum drying, and solar drying. Each technique has pros and cons in terms of the final product's quality and how efficiently it uses energy. Pre-drying procedures are frequently used in conjunction with drying. Pretreatment enhances the drying rate, product quality, and energy efficiency of the drying process. Enzymes that cause enzymatic browning, which lowers the product quality, are rendered inactive by pretreatments[1214]. Sensory qualities like color, texture, taste, scent, microbiological activity, and general acceptability are among the criteria that determine the quality of dried pomegranate arils[15]. These elements are crucial because they can have a big impact on customer preferences and, if not taken into full account, can lead to financial losses[16,17].

    Several studies[12,18,19] have looked at the impact of drying and pretreatment techniques on the general quality of the completed product. However, the combined impact of pretreatment and drying on quality was not sufficiently investigated. Reviews on pomegranate fruit often discuss the fruit's chemistry, nutritive value, and pharmacology. Therefore, by evaluating, highlighting, and reflecting on recent studies on pomegranate aril drying, this review seeks to close these gaps. This review paper compared and contrasted several pretreatment and drying setups with an emphasis on product quality.

    Heat, mass, and momentum exchanges all occur simultaneously during the drying of fruit materials in a sophisticated cellular architecture of biological tissue[20,21]. The characteristics of the material that affect the drying process are intricately dependent on size, shape, porosity, moisture content, and time[22]. For instance, the initial moisture level and the bioactive chemicals in pomegranate arils can vary depending on the cultivar and fruit ripeness. The understanding, engineering, and management of the drying process are further complicated by the intrinsic diversity of biological materials[23,24]. The mass, heat, and momentum transfer events that happen during a typical drying process are shown in Fig. 1[25]. Conduction and convection are the most common heat transfer methods, but radiation is typically only employed for high-end items due to its expensive cost[1,26]. Diffusion, capillary action, and bulk flow are only a few of the processes that might transfer mass. These mass transfer mechanisms must adapt to the ongoing physical changes in the material that take place as it dries out[22,27].

    Figure 1.  A visual representation of the drying processes of solid materials.

    Although it is native to Iran, the pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is widely distributed worldwide[28]. It belongs to the family Lythraceae and is a deciduous shrub. It is a versatile plant that can be found growing in both semi-arid and subtropical climates. Pomegranates, however, need hot summer temperatures to ripen[29]. Pomegranate fruit has a non-uniform round shape and a range of hues depending on the cultivar and fruit development stage, including yellow, green, pink, deep red, deep purple, and black[30,31]. An outsized calyx crowns the fruit. The leading producers worldwide are Peru, Australia, South Africa, and Chile in the southern hemisphere, and India, China, and Iran in the northern hemisphere[32].

    Pomegranate is a one-of-a-kind fruit with distinct edible seeds (arils) that must be extracted by hand (Fig. 2)[33]. An aril is made up of a seed and fleshy, moist tissue surrounding the seed. Color, sweetness, juice content, and hardness of arils vary depending on cultivar and fruit maturity[30,31]. While the arils can be eaten fresh, they can also be made into jams, jellies, coloring agents, juices, vitamins, and anardana (dried arils). They can also be mixed into yoghurts, biscuits, and cereals[34]. Fresh pomegranate arils can be kept at 7 °C for up to 14 d without losing much quality. Dried pomegranate aril has an extremely low perishability, with a potential shelf life of more than 14 weeks in ambient air[35].

    Figure 2.  A typical breakdown of the material balance throughout the drying process for pomegranate aril.

    As demonstrated in Table 1, pomegranate is high in ellagitannins, gallic acids, ferulic acids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, fiber, and minerals like vitamin C, calcium, and phosphorus. Pomegranates' phenolic components and high vitamin C content (Table 1) have attracted the interest of both researchers and consumers due to their health advantages[3638]. As a result of its strong antioxidant activity and nutritional benefits, pomegranate is considered a superfruit. Pomegranate can also be employed in cosmetics and pharmacology due to its phytochemical and antioxidant qualities[39]. Pomegranate fruit extract (PFE) has bioactive elements that have been found to inhibit or prevent various types and levels of cancer[40]. Punicalagic acid, ellagic acid, urolithin, and luteolin are the most important pomegranate components known to have anticarcinogenic characteristics[40,41]. Pomegranate fruit has also been linked to the prevention of diseases such as Alzheimer's, hypertension, and diabetes[42,43]. Pomegranate supplements may also help during or after exercise because they have the potential to speed up hard exercise recovery[44].

    Table 1.  The nutritional composition of 100 g of pomegranate arils.
    NutrientValueUnit
    Water77.9g
    Energy346kJ
    Protein1.67g
    Total lipid fat1.17g
    Ash0.53g
    Total dietary fiber4g
    Total sugar13.7g
    Calcium10mg
    Phosphorus36mg
    Magnesium12mg
    Iron0.3mg
    Potassium236mg
    Sodium3mg
    Zinc0.35mg
    Vitamin C10.2mg
    Vitamin K16.4µg
    Vitamin E0.6mg
    Vitamin B-60.075mg
    Total choline7.6mg
    Folate38µg
    Adapted from United States Department of Agriculture (Agricultural Research Service), FoodData Central[52].
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Pretreatment procedures are utilized to improve the drying process's effect on product quality characteristics such as color, flavor, appearance, and some physicochemical aspects[45,46]. Figure 3 depicts the most often used pretreatment procedures[46]. A product is immersed in a chemical solution prior to drying in chemical pretreatment. Physical pretreatments, on the other hand, necessitate a physical alteration of the product. When drying with heat, Maillard reactions might occur, resulting in an unpleasant color change[47]. As a result, pretreatment techniques are critical in many drying applications, including the drying of pomegranate arils[45,48,49]. There is evidence that pretreatment reduces the product's exposure to heat by reducing drying time[50,51].

    Figure 3.  A classification of the numerous pretreatment techniques utilized in the drying process for pomegranate aril.

    Soaking in acidic solutions involves immersing the product to be dried in a hot acidic solution for many minutes before drying. Pretreatment with an acidic solution keeps the product's color and speeds up the drying process. The acidic solution suppresses polyphenol oxidase enzyme activity, slowing the rate of enzymatic browning (Fig. 3). Furthermore, numerous investigations[5355] have documented the retention of nutrients such as vitamin C in acidic solution pretreatment samples. Some acid-sensitive components, on the other hand, can be destroyed or leached away. As a result, while employing this strategy, this effect must be considered. In a pomegranate aril drying research, arils prepared with 3% citric acid had the highest sensory acceptance[56]. Vardin & Yilmaz[57] conducted research on the combined effect of acid blanching and subsequent drying temperature. The authors blanched the arils in 0.1% citric solution for 2 min at 80 ± 2 °C followed by drying at 55, 65, or 75 °C and discovered that drying at 55 °C had the maximum antioxidant capacity[46]. Understanding the connection between soaking in acid (balancing in acid) and the subsequent drying temperature is required to carry out the operation correctly.

    This entails immersing products in an alkaline solution. Alkaline solutions act by dissolving the wax covering on the fruit's surface, removing resistance to moisture transfer and increasing drying rate[58]. As a result, this pretreatment accelerates the drying process. However, the usage of alkaline solutions raises food safety concerns because the residue might be harmful to one's health[46,59]. In addition, although acidic solutions retain vitamin C, alkaline solutions leach it out and destroy it[46]. Samples dipped in ethyl oleate for roughly one minute revealed a considerably reduced drying rate: a 26.9, 28.5, and 27.2% decrease in drying time at drying air temperatures of 55, 65, and 75 °C, respectively, than the control[60].

    The fruit is dipped into a hypertonic solution, such as salt or sugar solutions, in this approach (Fig. 3). Because of the osmotic pressure differential, the hypertonic solution causes water to diffuse out of the fruit tissue[61]. When compared to other drying processes, osmotically pretreated dried products have great rehydration capability and little losses in quality parameters such as color, appearance, and nutrients[62]. Madhushree et al.[63] discovered that osmotic pretreatment (in 50oBrix sugar syrup concentrations) dried arils had high color retention. This could be owing to the samples' reduced exposure to oxygen when immersed in the sucrose solution. A separate investigation on the osmotic pretreatment of pomegranate arils with a 65°Brix sucrose solution revealed a decrease in drying rate in hot air drying at 70 °C compared to untreated control samples[64]. The scientists attributed the longer drying time (lower drying rate) to the creation of a dense sucrose layer beneath the fruit's surface, which created an additional barrier to moisture transfer. To that aim, the osmotic solution concentration must be assessed because it can result in prolonged drying times.

    Gaseous or liquid sulphur solutions have been used as a food preservation method and as a pretreatment in food drying procedures. Typically, sulphur solutions are utilized for their browning properties, both enzymatic and non-enzymatic[65]. In addition, sulfur pretreatment is associated with high vitamin C and A retention after drying, as well as inhibition of spoilage-related microbial proliferation[66].

    More et al.[23] compared physical pretreatments to chemical pretreatments with 1% potassium metabisulphide on arils. It was discovered that arils prepared with potassium metabisulphide had superior nutritional quality as well as improved color, flavor, taste, and overall acceptability (Table 2)[23]. As a result, processing of pomegranate arils with sulfur solutions can result in high-quality dried goods. Despite their anti-browning, antibacterial, antifungal, and nutrient retention qualities, sulphites might be harmful to one's health if the recommended dosage or daily intake is exceeded[67,68]. Furthermore, while the sulfur solutions maintain vitamins A and C, they deplete vitamin B1[65].

    Table 2.  Key findings in pomegranate aril pretreatment and drying studies.
    Pretreatment methodPretreatmentDrying techniqueKey findingsReference
    BlanchingWater blanching at 90 and 100 °CHot air oven dryingBlanched samples had a shorter drying time.[24]
    Water blanching at 80 °CHot air oven dryerBlanched samples had higher phytonutrient retention than unblanched samples.[69]
    Blanching using 0.1% citric solution
    at 80 ± 2 °C
    Cabinet tray dryerDrying process was shorter for blanched samples and there was a higher rate of bioactive compounds.[57]
    Sulphuring1% potassium metabisulphideSolar drying
    Cabinet tray dryer
    Freeze dryer
    Fruit of cv. Ganesh 1% potassium metabisulphide was of the highest quality and the highest acceptance.[23]
    Blanching and SulphuringHot water blanching 85 °C and 0.2% potassium metabisulphateMechanical dryer
    Solar dryer
    Keeping quality of mechanically dried arils was higher than the solar-dried arils.[70]
    Steam blanching, potassium metabisulphide and 0.3% Sulphur fumigationCabinet tray dryerThe highest dried aril quality was obtained from the combination of steam blanching and 0.3% Sulphur fumigation.[71]
    Steam blanching, sulphuring at 0.3%Vacuum dryer
    Hot oven dryer
    Sun drying
    Poly-tent house drying
    Room drying
    Sun drying had the highest moisture content reduction and the highest overall acceptance.[72]
    Hot water blanching 85 °C,
    potassium metabisulphite varying
    from 0.25% to 1%
    Hot air oven dryerThe best treatment was blanching in hot water at 85 °C for 1 min and then dipping the arils in 0.25% potassium metabisulphite.[70]
    Steam blanching, sulphuringSun drying
    Cabinet dryer
    Blanching reduced drying time. Cabinet drying of blanched samples without sulphuring was considered optimum for anthocyanins.[73]
    Acidic solution2%, 3% and 4% citric acidCabinet tray dryer

    3% acidic treatment was found to be the most acceptable.[56]
    Microwave100 and 200 W.Hot air oven dryer200 W pretreatment resulted in minimum energy utilization and drying time.[74]
    100 and 200 WHot air oven dryer200 W had the highest drying rate.[75]
    Osmotic treatmentSugar syrup, freezing at minus 18 °COpen sun drying,
    Solar tunnel dryer,
    Cabinet tray dryer
    Osmotic treatment and cabinet tray dryer produced dried arils with better physicochemical and sensory qualities.[63]
    • 100% pomegranate juice
    • 50% pomegranate and 50% chokeberry juice
    • 50% pomegranate and 50% apple
    • 50% apple and 50% chokeberry
    • 75% apple and 25% chokeberry
    Freeze drying
    Convective pre-drying vacuum microwave finish drying
    Vacuum-drying and freeze drying
    Pomegranate and chokeberry concentrated juice improved the quality of the dried arils.[12]
    Sucrose solutionHot air oven dryingPretreatment increased the drying time of the samples.[64]
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    The dipping or soaking of a product in an alcoholic solution, usually ethanol, is known as alcoholic pretreatment. Ethanol dissolves the cell wall components, which increases moisture loss and thus the drying rate[76]. Several fruits, including melon (Cucumis melo L.) and apples (Malus domestica), have been pretreated in alcoholic solutions before drying[77,78]. However, no investigations on the pretreatment of pomegranate arils with alcohol were reported. This could be owing to the aril's waxy layer, which could impede permeability and hence the efficacy of the alcohol pretreatment[79].

    In this method, the fruit is dipped, submerged, or sprayed with a liquid solution that forms a thin coating layer on the product's surface and then dried (Fig. 3). According to studies, the use of edible coatings can help to retain the color, texture, and nutrient retention of dried items[80]. It is critical to note that the drying pace and dried product quality are affected by the coating thickness, drying method, and coating solution. Most of the research on edible coverings for pomegranate arils has focused on cold preservation and packing.

    Acoustic cavitation is utilized to rupture cell walls using ultrasound pretreatment[81]. According to one investigation on the effect of sonification on osmotic dehydration and subsequent air drying of pomegranate arils, ultrasonography caused a 2-fold and 2.7-fold increase in water loss[82]. The authors hypothesized that ultrasonic promoted cell wall disintegration and enhanced permeability. While using ultrasonic improved color quality, it also reduced anthocyanin content when compared to osmotically dehydrated samples[82].

    Blanching is a pretreatment technique that involves rapidly heating and then cooling a product that will be dried[45]. Blanching can be used to inactivate enzymes that potentially degrade product quality, such as polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, and polygalacturonase[4]. Unwanted sensory traits in color, flavor, texture, and nutritional aspects are examples[4,83]. Blanching also improves cell membrane permeability, resulting in a faster drying rate[45]. Furthermore, blanching kills bacteria that might cause product spoiling[45,83]. As indicated in Fig. 3, there are several blanching processes, including hot water blanching and modern technologies such as microwave blanching and infrared blanching.

    Adetoro et al.[18] discovered that blanching pomegranate arils in hot water accelerated drying rates compared to unblanched samples. In a separate investigation, the authors found that blanching arils at 90 °C for 30 s and drying at 60 °C had higher total anthocyanin content and radical scavenging activity than blanching at 100 °C for 60 s and drying at 60 °C. In another work, Karaaslan et al.,[69] blanched arils in water at 80 °C for 2 min to investigate the effects of temperature and pretreatment on the arils. The authors discovered that while 75 °C had the fastest drying time, 55 °C had the maximum anthocyanin concentration, phenolic content, and antioxidant capacity. In other studies, pretreatment procedures are combined to produce high-quality dried fruit products.

    Singh et al.[73] conducted a study to evaluate the drying of pomegranate seeds under various drying conditions. They discovered that blanched samples dried faster and had higher acidity than sulphured samples. Furthermore, the anthocyanin concentration of blanched samples was higher than that of blanched and sulphured samples using the mechanical dryer. The authors hypothesized that the reduced anthocyanin concentration seen after sun drying was caused by the long drying hours in the sun. They also suggested that pomegranate arils be dried using blanching rather than sulphuring to achieve the maximum nutritional quality. Sharma et al.[70] investigated ideal methods for drying pomegranate arils by blanching them in hot water at 85 °C for one minute and then immersing them in a solution of potassium metabisulphite with concentrations ranging from 0.25% to 1% for two minutes (Table 2). The highest potassium metabisulphite content resulted in the lowest acidity.

    Thakur et al.[71] used steam blanching for 30 s and 0.3% sulphur fumigation for one hour to standardize pretreatments for dried arils from wild pomegranate. The authors discovered that cabinet drying outperforms solar drying and open sun drying. The solar dryer ranked second in terms of sensory characteristics like texture, taste, and general acceptability. Sun-dried pomegranate arils, on the other hand, exhibited the highest reduction in moisture content and overall acceptance when compared to vacuum drying, hot air oven drying, polytent drying, and room temperature drying, according to Bakshi et al.[72].

    The effect of pulsed electric field treatment on the behavior of microwave-assisted hot air drying of pomegranate arils was examined by Amiali et al.[84]. When compared to drying at 70 °C, they found that pulsed electric field treatment was only advantageous when the subsequent drying process was done at the lowest temperature (50 °C). The lower the temperature, the higher the overall phenolic concentration. Arils treated with a pulsed electric field had a 21.02% higher total phenolic content than untreated arils.

    Various pretreatment procedures on pomegranate arils have been utilized with the goal of conserving physicochemical, physical, and chemical properties or enhancing drying rates. However, pretreatment standardization is currently restricted and underexplored. Table 2 lists some of the methods for preparing dried pomegranate arils.

    Despite the fact that pomegranate is a fruit with numerous health and nutritional benefits, it is now a modest crop with limited marketability. The difficulty in collecting the interior edible seeds (arils) is the greatest impediment to realizing the full potential of this unusual fruit[29,31]. Only manual extraction of pomegranate arils for laboratory scale testing is described in the literature.

    Pomegranates are first cleaned and sorted for uniformity in color, size, shape, and weight before aril extraction[18,85]. All pomegranates should be washed. To avoid introducing bacteria into the arils when the fruit is sliced open, excess water from the fruit surface is dried before cutting[86]. Following that, the fruit is cut along the ridges and the segments are gently pulled apart to form a flower-like structure. The deconstructed pomegranate is then flipped over a bowl of water and gently tapped with a wooden spoon on the skin side. As a result, the arils will begin to come out without being broken. Once all arils have dropped out, the white membranes are skimmed off the surface of the water as it floats, the water is drained, the arils are separated, and the surplus water is gently patted off with a towel. This method involves cutting the pomegranate with a knife, which results in a loss of more than 30% of the arils owing to mechanical damage[86]. As a result, a better approach was required, such as the machinery developed by Schmilovitch et al.[87], which allows opening the fruit without cutting, extracting the arils with minimal damage, separating the arils from extraneous materials, and delivering clean arils to a packaging machine. This technology could be used to produce dried pomegranate on a greater scale.

    The drying time is determined by the pretreatment process, kind, and technique of dehydration used. The dehydration methods that will be investigated in this study are low-temperature drying and high-temperature drying.

    Low-temperature drying methods employ temperatures ranging from subzero to 50 °C[49,88]. These drying processes are time-consuming and are usually utilized for temperature-sensitive goods like herbs. Furthermore, low-temperature drying procedures reduce the risk of scorching the fruit, protecting heat-sensitive components such as vitamin C[89]. Freeze drying, vacuum drying, and sun drying are all low-temperature drying procedures[90]. Pomegranate arils dried using low-temperature procedures such as freeze drying and vacuum drying have a more acceptable look and nutrient composition than most high-temperature drying methods[12,91].

    Freeze-drying (FD) is a low-temperature technology frequently used for drying food samples for high-quality or heat-sensitive products[92]. It is also recognized as one of the most expensive, time-consuming, and energy-intensive procedures in the food industry[93]. It entails removing moisture from food ingredients under low temperature and high vacuum via ice sublimation[48]. Because the product is frequently frozen, it is also known as sublimation drying.

    Adetoro et al.[94] freeze-dried fresh pomegranate arils at a freezer temperature of −80 °C for 96 h to examine the effect of drying procedures on pomegranate arils. The researchers discovered that color, total phenolic compounds (TPC), total anthocyanin content (TAC), and radical-scavenging activity stability differed significantly from the hot air-drying procedure (Table 3). More et al.[23] investigated the effect of drying procedures on the quality of dried pomegranate arils from three varieties. The authors discovered that FD produced the greatest results in terms of color, flavor, taste, and nutritional factors across all cultivars. However, FD stood out due to its prolonged drying duration, 24−48 h, when compared to solar drying (17 h) and hot air drying (10 h). A study on the influence of freeze-drying on the color attributes of 'Assiuty' pomegranate arils revealed that FD had the best color attributes (L* value of 46.50 ± 4.4 and a* value of 13.97 ± 1.23)[95]. Gölükcü[91] discovered that the FD had the maximum phenolic matter content (5580 mg/kg), followed by vacuum, convective, and sun-dried pomegranate arils (Table 3). Caln-Sánchez et al.[96] investigated the chemical composition, antioxidant capability, and sensory quality of pomegranate arils and rind after exposure to FD. The investigators found that FD pomegranate arils retained the most sensory characteristics and punicalagin content. Similarly, Cano-Lamadrid et al.[12] discovered the best sensory profile and sweetness in FD pomegranate arils at 65 Pa for 24 h at −60 °C. The drying kinetics, total bioactive content, in-vitro bio accessibility of bioactive compounds, and color and microstructural features of pomegranate arils were also studied[97]. When compared to alternative drying methods, the FD was shown to be the best approach in terms of final product quality and has been highly recommended by multiple reviewers[48]. FD arils have been demonstrated to have a higher bioactive chemical content, less shrinking, and excellent color quality. The FD for pomegranate arils has a disadvantage in terms of bioactive chemical recovery when compared to other methods, as well as extensive drying times[97]. Furthermore, FD is costly due to high energy consumption and initial investment expenses[98].

    Table 3.  A summary of the many techniques for drying pomegranate arils.
    CultivarDrying methodDrying
    time (h)
    Drying conditionInitial moisture
    content (%)
    Final moisture
    content (%)
    Key findingsReference
    WonderfulFreeze dryer96−80 °C
    5,999.1 Pa
    74.7 (w.b.)FD showed a higher color shift (19.6% ± 2,77%) at week 4 compared to hot air drying at week 0.[94]
    Ganesh, Bhagwa and AraktaFreeze dryer24−48−45 °C79.9 (w.b.)
    80.5 (w.b.)
    78.9 (w.b.)
    9.65−9.9 (w.b.)
    9.8−10.2 (w.b.)
    9.8−9.9 (w.b.)
    Arakta pre-treated with 1% potassium metabisulphide had the highest ascorbic acid concentration (6.81 ± 0.07 mg 100 g−1).[23]
    AssiutyFreeze dryer36−70 °CTA (18.80, 2.80 mg 100 g−1), TP (608.09a, 41.26 mg 100 g−1), DPPH (68.91, 0.72%), and ABTS (2,956.59c, 120 mol trolox
    100 g−1) were all higher in frozen pomegranate arils than in freeze-dried arils.
    [95]
    Mollar de Elche24−60 °C, 65 Pa,81.5 (w.b.)FD showed higher anthocyanin content (646 mg kg−1) compared to osmotic drying and conventional drying.[12]
    Hicaznar36−20 °C, 100 Pa for
    12 h
    −70 °C, 0.26 Pa
    76.96 (w.b.)10 (w.b.)Arils dried using FD had the highest magnesium content (96.17 ± 6.95 mg kg−1), manganese content (0.96 ± 0.05 mg kg−1) and zinc content (3.93 ± 0.07 mg kg−1) compared to sun drying, hot air drying and vacuum drying.[91]
    KebenFreeze dryer57−55 °C77.6 ± 1 (d.b.)20 ± 1 (d.b.)FD had lower bioactive recovery during in-vitro gastrointestinal digestion (TPC of 2.92%, ABTS of 6.12% and CUPRAC of 38.85%) compared to vacuum drying, hot air drying and ultrasound-assisted vacuum drying.[97]
    KebenVacuum dryer10.855 °C77.6 ± 1 (d.b.)20 ± 1 (d.b.)Vacuum drying had the highest bio accessibility recovery of bioactive compounds at 10.32% compared to HAD, FD and ultrasound-assisted vacuum drying.[97]
    HicaznarVacuum dryer3.7
    4.6
    7.8
    75 °C
    65 °C
    55 °C
    85,000 Pa
    78.1 ± 0.2 (w.b.)16 (w.b.)Drying temperatures of 75°C resulted in higher degradation of anthocyanins, phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity (20.0%, 51.0%, 29.7% ± 0.28% respectively).[99]
    HicaznarVacuum dryer2455 °C
    3 500 Pa
    76.96 (w.b.)10 (w.b.)FD had the highest quality attributes such as TAC-1288.73 mg/kg) compared to VD and HAD however, due to physical changes that were undesirable physical changes, VD and HAD are recommended for pomegranate aril drying.[91]
    Wild pomegranates (cultivar- unspecified)Vacuum dryer1342 ± 2 °CVD had a higher sensorial overall acceptance (17.1) compared to sun drying (16.2) and room temperature (12.6).[72]
    BasseinSun drying1715.73
    (unspecified)
    Drying rate of pomegranate arils is affected by tray load and the recommended tray load is 1.25 kg m−2[73]
    Wild pomegranates (cv. Unspecified)Solar poly-tunnel14014.9−28.4 °C
    48.5%−74% -RH
    0.639−0.944 -wind speed
    Arils dried in the solar poly-tunnel had higher ascorbic acid, anthocyanins, and phenol content, 12.7 mg 100 g−2, 28.12 mg 100 g−2, and 108.60 mg 100 g−2 respectively than open sun drying.[100]
    SefriIndirect solar dryer75
    10
    6
    4
    40 °C
    50 °C
    60 °C
    75 °C
    78 ± 0.1(w.b.)The optimal water activity for drying and storing arils is 0.3684 ± 0.03.[101]
    Wild pomegranates
    (cv. Unspecified)
    Solar tunnel30−45 °CArils from the Karsog location had the highest TSS, sugars, anthocyanin, total phenols and antioxidant activity[102]
    Microwave2.3
    1.3
    0.7
    270 W
    450 W
    630 W
    70.25 ± 0.5(w.b.)10(d.b.)Color changes increased from 6.77−13.11 with an increase in microwave power from 270−630 W and were lower compared to arils dried using HAD.[85]
    HicazMicrowave1.2
    0.6
    0.4
    210 W
    350 W
    490 W
    23.93 ± 1.4 (unspecified)22.2
    (unspecified)
    Based on quality parameters, a microwave drying power of 350 W was recommended for drying pomegranate arils.
    Sweet acid
    (cv. Unspecified)
    Infrared4.3
    2.2
    1.6
    50 °C
    60 °C
    70 °C
    78 ± 0.2 (w.b.)9 ± 0.2 (d.b.)
    22.2
    (unspecified)
    Drying time for infrared drying was less than for HAD.[103]
    HicazHAD2450, 60, 70 °C at
    1.0 m/s air velocity
    To obtain better dried aril quality, 60 °C was recommended for drying pomegranate arils.[104]
    Wild pomegranates
    (cv. Unspecified)
    HAD16.542 ± 2 °CSun drying resulted in a maximum loss of moisture compared to VD, HAD, poly-tent house drying and room drying.[72]
    Wild pomegranates
    (cv. Unspecified)
    HAD1062 ± 2 °CHAD achieved the highest total soluble solids (39.6°Brix) and drying rate compared to solar drying and open sun drying.[105]
    KebenHAD555 °C; with 1.3 m s−1 constant air velocity77.6 ± 1 (d.b.)20 ± 1 (d.b.)In comparison to hot air oven drying, ultrasound-assisted vacuum drying and freeze-drying have higher quality characteristics.[97]
    Bassein seedlessHAD5−660 ± 5 °C. Airflow in
    the dryer was 1.2−1.8 m s−1.
    8.98 ± 0.091For the finest preparation of anardana, blanched samples (with sulphur) should be dried in a cabinet.[73]
    Mollar de ElcheVacuum-
    microwave
    240, 360, 480 W and pressure ranging
    from 4,000−6,000 Pa
    80.4 (w.b.)Arils dried using vacuum microwave drying at 240 W had the highest sensorial scores for odour and aroma at 3.1 and 5.6 respectively.[106]
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Vacuum drying (VD) is the process of subjecting items to low pressure in a vacuum. Because of the low pressure, water has a lower boiling point, allowing samples to be dried at low temperatures. As a result, VD is appropriate for heat and/or oxygen-sensitive items. During VD, heat transmission can occur by conduction, radiation, or microwave energy. VD is distinguished by faster drying times when compared to FD, and the products are not initially frozen as necessary for FD[107]. This low-temperature operation, combined with the elimination of oxygen during vacuum drying, allows nutrients and bioactive components such as phenolic compounds and vitamins to be retained[108,109].

    Ozay-Arancioglu et al.[97] investigated the influence of drying methods on dried pomegranate arils by comparing four distinct drying techniques: FD, VD, ultra-assisted vacuum drying, and hot air drying. They discovered that VD had better antioxidant capacity values than the samples tested for ABTS following FD. According to Gölükcü[91], VD is second only to FD as the finest choice for producing dried pomegranate (Hicazar) arils. Another study found that arils dried at 55 °C had higher phytonutrient levels than those dried at 65 and 75 °C under vacuum conditions[69]. When compared to other drying procedures, vacuum drying produces products with higher levels of phytochemical components. However, drying times range from 7.8 to 24 h at 55 °C, contributing to high costs, and products can only be dried in batches[91,99,110].

    Sun drying is one of the oldest and most used methods of drying. Sun drying is a low-cost, renewable energy-based drying process. In a nutshell, products are laid out on a flat area where they can be fully exposed to the sun for as long as possible. Because the drying process is dependent on solar radiation, the temperature is low and the drying process can be lengthy, taking approximately 15 d for pomegranate arils[60]. Furthermore, exposure to light and oxygen can lead to decreased preservation of substances like vitamin C. Furthermore, solar drying is an uncontrolled process with substantial risks of pest contamination, dust exposure, and product remoistening at night. To increase safety, solar dryers and solar tunnels are proposed to reduce pest and dust contamination[111]. Solar dryers use a contained environment comprised of a transparent or opaque cover, resulting in either direct or indirect drying[112]. The indirect drier system captures solar heat and transfers it to the product drying chamber via a second solar collector. A solar tunnel dryer is typically large in size and has a clear cover (Fig. 4). To regulate drying conditions such as temperature and relative humidity within the tunnel, solar tunnels often require a forced convection facility. A solar tunnel dryer may also include a solar air heater[111]. Solar dryers have the potential to boost drying temperatures, resulting in a quicker drying time[113].

    Figure 4.  This image depicts a sample of wild pomegranate arils being dried in a solar tunnel drier. Reprinted from Thakur et al.[102].

    In a comparison of hot air drying (60 °C), solar tunnel drying, and sun drying by Madushree et al.[63], hot air-dried arils were shown to have the highest quality. However, of all the drying techniques, solar drying had the greatest L* values (lightness), a desired quality. This was due to the comparatively low temperature of sun drying. Additionally, Bakshi et al.[72] discovered that when compared to vacuum drying, oven drying (42 ± 2 °C), and room drying (23 ± 2 °C), sun dried arils had the highest sensory overall acceptance and the lowest moisture content. In their comparative analysis of drying techniques, Singh et al.[73] discovered that hot air-dried pomegranate arils had the greatest anthocyanin and acidity contents. But in hot-air oven-dried samples, undesirable non-enzymatic browning was most pronounced. Sharma & Thakur[100] demonstrated that the quality of arils dried in solar polytunnels was superior to that of arils dried in the open sun (Fig. 4). The ascorbic acid, anthocyanins, and phenols were found to be significantly greater in the sun polytunnel dried arils, according to the authors. They also received superior sensory ratings for color, texture, taste, and acceptability.

    Temperatures above 50 °C are used in high-temperature drying processes[88]. These drying processes are energy intensive, have large operating expenses, and so are costly. These technologies rely on fossil fuels, which pollute the environment where they are generated and utilized, and their continued usage is seriously harming our environment[114]. The drying mechanism is designed such that there is a controlled direct or indirect heat transmission to the product, leading in moisture elimination. These drying procedures may not be suited for some foods because they may induce nutritional breakdown[115]. Furthermore, high temperatures might cause product shrinkage and distortion. Hot-air drying ovens, steam drying, heat pump drying, and spray drying are all examples of high-temperature drying processes.

    Using forced convection, hot air oven drying (HAD) eliminates moisture from materials. Objects dry out through evaporation when hot air is forced through and around the substance. As a result, the dried product's flavor, color, nutrients, and ability to rehydrate may alter unintentionally[97,104,106]. The HAD techniques were shown to have a comparatively high total color change by Ozay-Arancioglu et al.[97]. As shown in Fig. 5, hot air-dried arils were darker than freeze-dried and vacuum-dried arils.

    Figure 5.  Illustration of dried pomegranate arils that have been dried using different methods. (a) Freeze drying, (b) vacuum drying, and (c) hot air drying. Adapted from Ozay-Arancioglu et al.[97].

    Başlar et al.[99] prepared dried aril samples using the hot air-drying process and subjected them to various quality assessments. Fresh aril samples were dried at three different temperatures (55, 65, and 75 °C). According to the authors' findings, high temperatures and short drying times are optimal for retaining valuable food biocomponents. However, whereas bioactive chemical losses increased over time, they degraded faster at higher temperatures. The antioxidant activity, on the other hand, decreased with drying time and was unaffected by drying temperatures. Horuz & Maskan[104] investigated the effect of hot air drying on pomegranate aril cv. Hicaz at three different drying temperatures and compared quality metrics such color, shrinkage, rehydration capacity, and drying time (Table 3). The authors suggested 60 °C for pomegranate aril HAD. The authors also discovered that shrinkage was greater in HAD than in microwave drying. In a second study, researchers discovered that the optimal drying temperature for retaining bioactive chemicals when drying pomegranate arils (cv. Hicaznar) in a hot air dryer was 65 °C[116]. When compared to the sun drying method for anardana made from wild pomegranate, Bhat et al.[105] discovered HAD dried arils with maximum acidity of 13.72%, phenols of 110.7 mg per 100 g, total sugars (24.2%), and reducing sugars (21.2%).

    However, Bakshi et al.[72] carried out a study with lower temperatures in which they studied the influence of different drying processes on the moisture content of dried pomegranate aril (cv. Wild). Lower temperatures were employed to gain insight into the quality of the dried product when compared to the low temperature drying methods used in the study, such as sun drying, poly tent house drying, room drying, and VD. When compared to alternative drying methods, the authors discovered that HAD (42 ± 2 °C ) for 16.5 h and drying in room at normal air (23 ± 2 °C ) for 10−12 d produced in the greatest loss of moisture from fresh arils of wild pomegranate (75.12%).

    Singh et al.[73] evaluated the influence of different drying conditions on the quality of dried pomegranate arils (Bassien Seedless) samples (Table 3). The scientists discovered that sun-drying preserved more MC while drying was faster with a HAD dryer and generally recommended it as a better strategy for preparing dried pomegranate arils.

    HAD drying of pomegranate arils is a standard drying procedure that can be utilized in commercial settings. Although HAD does not generate high-quality goods like FD, it does provide better TSS, TA, and antioxidant capacity stability. Furthermore, although having a higher rate of bioactive component degradation, higher temperatures may result in higher retention compared to approaches such as solar drying due to the short drying times.

    Electrical current is passed through the pomegranate aril during electric drying techniques including ohmic heating. The intrinsic resistance of the aril induces internal heating as the electrical current flows through it[117,118]. Ohmic heating is typically employed for liquid, viscous, and particle-containing foods[119]. Regardless of the meal's densities, food products prepared using this approach are heated quickly and uniformly[120].

    Dielectric techniques, on the other hand, use electromagnetic waves to directly produce heat inside the product, such as microwave, radio frequency drying, and infrared radiation[121]. Dielectric heating results from the conversion of electromagnetic energy to kinetic energy by dipolar molecules oscillating in accordance with the rapidly oscillating electric field[122,123]. Compared to traditional methods like hot air drying, dielectric technologies dry materials more quickly[124]. Additionally, the items are of a higher caliber than those produced by traditional drying techniques.

    Microwave drying (MD) is one of the emerging drying technologies. Unlike other techniques, MD utilizes volumetric heating to rapidly dehydrate the sample material[104]. Some studies[85,104] have indicated that arils desiccated at 150 W microwave power and 58 bar (abs) pressure produced the highest quality arils. In another study, microwave power of 80 W and vacuum pressure of 60 mm Hg provided the highest drying efficiency and qualitative attributes, including color and texture[125]. Horuz & Maskan[104] observed that microwave-dried pomegranate samples had lower levels of shrinkage and bulk density than hot air-dried samples. The authors also noted that microwave drying caused a greater loss of color in terms of total color difference (E) compared to air drying. It was observed that microwave-dried samples had a brownish hue.

    Drying with MD reduces drying time, but essential quality parameters, such as color, are sacrificed. Since the product is directly heated, the lack of heating uniformity during MD, which is difficult to control and could contribute to product burning has been cited as a disadvantage[126].

    Infrared drying is an effective technique of drying in which the product is heated directly without the use of air as the drying medium. In a comparative study of drying methods (hot air drying and infrared drying) to dry pomegranate arils, the authors discovered that infrared drying effectively dried pomegranate arils and that the polyphenol content in arils dried using infrared drying was higher at 50 and 60 °C than in arils dried using hot air drying at similar temperatures[103]. Therefore, pomegranate arils can be infrared-dried at 50 °C for optimal nutrient retention[103]. In contrast, a distinct study dried pomegranate arils under near-infrared vacuum conditions and found that drying at 60 °C and 20 kPa air pressure resulted in optimal colour retention and shrinkage[127].

    Although infrared drying is a rapid drying method, it is challenging to control due to parameters such as infrared intensity and radiation distance, and its energy consumption is unpredictable[26].

    Drying kinetics is the study of how factors that influence the removal of moisture from products during a drying process interact[110]. The drying kinetics of a substance is dependent on its thermal and mass transport properties. Understanding drying kinetics relates to process variables, and therefore aids in identifying suitable drying methods and controlling drying processes[57,96,116]. For optimal operating conditions, drying kinetics can be used to estimate drying time, energy requirements, and drying efficiency[2]. Due to the complexity of the drying phenomenon, however, mathematical models describing the drying kinetic of biological tissues are devised based on the time history of the moisture ratio from a controlled drying experiment[128]. There are numerous mathematical models, but Table 4 provides a summary of the most used models.

    Table 4.  A summary of the mathematical equations that are most commonly used to model the drying kinetics of pomegranate arils is shown here.
    Model nameModel expressionReference
    PageMR = exp(-ktn)[129]
    NewtonMR = exp(-kt)[130]
    Henderson and PabisMR = aexp(-kt)[131]
    Midili et alMR = aexp(-ktn) + bt[132]
    Wang and SinghMR = 1 + at + btn[133]
    Two TermMR = (aexp(-k0 t) + bexp(-k1 t))[134]
    LogarithmicMR = aexp(-kt) + c[135]
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    The most common models that best describe the hot air drying of pomegranate arils include the Logarithmic, Midili and Page models[24,99]. Baslar et al.[99] found the Logarithmic model as the best in describing hot air drying of arils at 55, 65 and 75 °C. In another study, it was found the Sigmoid model describing the kinetics of hot air drying of pomegranate arils at similar drying temperatures[116].

    In their study on the infrared drying of pomegranate arils, Briki et al.[103] discovered that the Midili model was the most accurate representation of the drying kinetics. In a similar manner, it was discovered that the Midili model provided the best fit to the experimental data for drying using a combination of infrared and hot air[136]. Another investigation indicated that the Aghbashlo model provided the greatest fit for the data obtained from near-infrared vacuum drying at a temperature of 60 °C[127].

    Based on measurement data from three pomegranate cultivars (cvs. 'Acco', 'Herkaswitz', and 'Wonderful') at 60 °C, Adetoro et al. demonstrated cultivar as another influencing factor in selecting an optimal model. While the drying data of the blanched samples of all the cultivars in this investigation were best fit by the Logarithmic model, the unblanched samples of 'Acco' and 'Herkaswitz' and 'Wonderful' were best fitted by the Page and Midili models, respectively[24].

    The bioactive chemicals retained and drying periods may be affected by the pretreatment process, although frequently the drying kinetics of both untreated and pretreated samples may be described by the same model. The Page and Modified Page were determined to be the best models to fit the drying data of both blanched and unblanched pomegranate arils under vacuum air drying by Karaslaan et al.[69]. In a different investigation, the Page and Modified Page were shown to be the model that best suited the drying data of pomegranate arils that had been bathed in citric acid and dried by hot air[57]. Although the drying rate of pre-treated samples is higher than that of untreated samples, the scientists noted that the same models were found to best reflect the drying kinetics. The Page, Logarithmic, and Midili drying models are the most popular and effective drying models for pomegranate arils employing HAD, MD, and VD. The mathematical models that were utilized to explain the drying kinetics of pomegranate arils are summarized in Table 5.

    Table 5.  A synopsis of the results of mathematical modeling of the kinetics of drying pomegranate arils.
    CultivarDrying methodDrying parametersPretreatmentSuitable drying modelReference
    cv. HicazHAD55, 65, 75 °C0.1% citric acidPage and Modified Page[57]
    cv. HicaznarHAD55, 65, 75 °CSigmoid[116]
    HAD55, 55, 60 °CPage[137]
    HAD50, 60, 70 °CPage[85]
    MD270, 450, and 630 WPage[85]
    cv. HicaznarVD55, 65, 75 °CHot water blanchingPage and Modified page[69]
    HAD45, 50, 55, 60, 65, and 70 °CMicrowaveMidili[75]
    cvs. Acco, Herskawitz and WonderfulHAD60 °CHot water blanching (at 90 and 100 °C, each for 30 s
    and 60 s)
    Logarithmic, Page,
    Midili for unblanched arils
    Midili and Page for blanched
    [24]
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    The drying procedure aids in reducing bacterial growth, which can result in reducing spoilage. However, while food is being dried, other changes may occur that degrade its quality. To determine the product's expiration life, chemical, physical, physicochemical, and microbiological changes are monitored[138,139]. These modifications are affected by stowage, environment, and packaging methods. The most significant factor affecting the integrity of stored food products is temperature[140]. Consequently, most shelf-life experiments are designed to evaluate the temperature-time history in relation to changes in product quality[138,141]. To accurately evaluate quality changes and safety, shelf-life evaluations should ideally simulate actual storage conditions[142]. In the case of desiccated goods, the actual storage period is lengthy, and the evaluation of shelf-life can become time-consuming and expensive. When the actual storage time is lengthy for practical reasons, an accelerated shelf-life test or analysis of the worst-case scenario is employed[142]. Ordinarily, the end of shelf life is determined by relevant food legislation, guidelines issued by enforcement authorities or agencies, guidelines issued by independent professional organizations, current industrial best practices, self-imposed end-point assessment, and market data[142].

    Appropriate packaging material can help to reduce quality losses. The packaging and shelf-life tests on dried pomegranate arils are summarized in Table 6. Sharma et al.[70] examined the packaging of dried pomegranate arils with high-density polyethylene (HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), and polypropylene (PP) films. For 12 months, samples were held at 7 °C and ambient (14−39 °C). They found that HDPE retained the most color, total tannins, and acidity while gaining the least moisture. The authors proposed a safe storage time of 6 and 9 months for HDPE packed dried pomegranate arils under ambient and refrigerated conditions, respectively.

    Table 6.  A list of the several types of containers used to store dried pomegranate arils.
    Drying methodDrying temperaturePackaging materialStorage period (months)Shelf-life performanceReference
    MC drier
    Solar cabinet drier
    Open sun
    62−64 °C
    50−55 °C
    18−24 °C
    Aluminum laminated polyethylene pouch, polyethylene pouches and thermoform trays.6Aluminum laminated polyethylene pouches were best for packaging.[105]
    Microwave-vacuum drying38 °CHigh-density polypropylene (HDPP) and aluminum laminated polyethylene (ALP).3−6Pomegranate arils stored showed that ALP is more protective than HDPP.[35]
    Solar tunnel30−45 °CGunny bags, aluminum laminated polyethylene pouches (ALP) and vacuum-sealed aluminum laminated polyethylene pouches (ALPV).12Both refrigerated and ambient storage can securely preserve dried pomegranate samples for 12 months. Best performance was ALP with vacuum and cold storage.[144]
    Hot air dryer60 °CAluminum laminated polyethylene pouch (ALP), polyethylene pouch (PEP), and thermofoam tray (TT) covered in shrinkable polypropylene transparent sheet.6Moisture absorbers aid in the preservation of samples.[100]
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Bhat et al.[105] compared aluminum-laminated polyethylene (ALP, 99.8 g m−2) and polyethylene pouches (93.9 g m−2) each storing 100 g dried pomegranate arils and stored at ambient (15−25 °C). The authors discovered that aluminum laminated polyethylene pouches performed best after a 6-month storage period. Dak et al. [35] compared HDPP and ALP under accelerated shelf-life conditions (38 ± 1 °C and 90% ± 1% relative humidity) and evaluated the correlation between packaging material, storage period, and anthocyanin, phenolics, TSS, TA, and microbial count. The authors estimated that HDPP and ALP have shelf lives of 96 and 187 d, respectively. The above two research confirmed that ALP had the best performance features. This could be owing to the pouches' thickness and the opaque barrier of the aluminum lamination. The use of opaque packaging material may extend the shelf life of pomegranate arils by minimizing photodegradation of components such as carotenoids, flavonoids, and lipids, which can alter qualitative qualities such as aroma, texture, and color[143]. Based on safe consumption criteria, Mokapane et al.[19] proposed a shelf life of 5 months for citric acid pretreatment and dried arils wrapped in kraft paper pouches.

    In a second investigation, Thakur et al.[144] examined the effectiveness of gunny bags, ALP, and ALP combined with vacuum for storing dried pomegranate arils for a period of one year. According to the authors' findings, ALP performed best when performed under vacuum. The various types of containers that are used to store dried pomegranate arils are broken down into categories and shown in Fig. 6.

    Figure 6.  Different types of storage bags for dried pomegranate arils. (a) Aluminum-laminated polyethylene pouches, (b) vacuum-sealed aluminum-laminated polyethylene pouches, (c) gunny bags and (d) transparent polyethylene pouch. From Thakur et al.[144], modified.

    Sharma & Thakur[100] investigated the effect of active packaging on the quality features of dried wild pomegranate arils over a 6-month storage period. Salt or sugar sachets were inserted in ALP pouches or Thermofoam trays that had been wrapped in shrinkable polypropylene transparent film or polyethylene pouches. The researchers reported that for arils dried in a mechanical drier, ALP pouches had the best quality retention of criteria such as ascorbic acid, anthocyanins, total phenols, color, and texture. Furthermore, the inclusion of salt or sugar in active packing aids in the production of high-quality dried arils. However, salt-based active packaging had somewhat higher TA, ascorbic acid content, total sugars, anthocyanin content, and total phenols than sugar-based active packaging.

    The shelf life of dried pomegranate aril can range anywhere from three months to a year depending on the pretreatment, drying procedures and packaging that were used. There is, however, no definitive guideline about the influence that pretreatment and drying procedures have on the quality characteristics of the product when it is being stored. Many studies on the shelf life of dried pomegranate arils focus on examining the influence that different types of packaging material have on the storage life. These studies pay less attention to the physical and microbiological changes that accompany quality alterations. Additionally, a specialized shelf-life testing process and quality standard for dried pomegranate arils can be difficult to locate in the literature.

    While high temperatures have a positive influence on the drying rate, it has a negative effect on the product's texture, color, and nutritional content. Because of this, lower temperatures are often ideal for retaining the pomegranate arils' nutritional value and maintaining their consistency. Freeze dryers offer the best result in this regard. Freeze-drying, on the other hand, is a time- and money-consuming process. When paired with other types of pretreatment, inexpensive procedures such as sun dryers can be adjusted to produce high retention on chemicals that are virtually identical to those obtained in freeze dryers. However, before implementation, it is necessary to examine the intended outcome of the pretreated arils. This is because pretreatments affect both the drying rate and the retention of nutrients. Therefore, in order to completely optimize the process, it is necessary to have an awareness of the interaction that occurs between the pretreatments and the subsequent drying procedure. It is proposed that recommendations be formulated to assist in the manufacture and marketing of dried pomegranate arils that are consistent, nutritious, and hygienically safe.

    The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: study conception and design: Ambaw A, Opara UL; project administration and supervision: Ambaw A, Opara UL; draft manuscript preparation: Maphosa B; manuscript review and editing: Ambaw A. all authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

    Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

    This work is based on the research supported wholly/in part by the National Research Foundation of South Africa (Grant No. 64813). The opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed are those of the author(s) alone, and the NRF accepts no liability whatsoever in this regard. Research reported in this publication was supported in part by the Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research under award number 434—grant ID: DFs-18- 0000000008.

  • The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

  • Supplemental Table S1 The amino acid sequence and source information of the reported marine umami peptides.
    Supplemental Fig. S1 The amino acid fingerprints of the reported marine umami peptides (a) dipeptide ~ hexapeptide; (b) hexapeptide ~ octapeptide; (c) octapeptide ~ dodecapeptide; (d) tridecanoicpeptide ~ octadecapeptide.
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  • Cite this article

    Hu D, Zheng Z, Liang B, Jin Y, Shi C, et al. 2024. Recent progress and prospects in production and identification of umami peptides from marine proteins. Food Innovation and Advances 3(3): 256−267 doi: 10.48130/fia-0024-0024
    Hu D, Zheng Z, Liang B, Jin Y, Shi C, et al. 2024. Recent progress and prospects in production and identification of umami peptides from marine proteins. Food Innovation and Advances 3(3): 256−267 doi: 10.48130/fia-0024-0024

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Recent progress and prospects in production and identification of umami peptides from marine proteins

Food Innovation and Advances  3 2024, 3(3): 256−267  |  Cite this article

Abstract: Umami peptides, the flavor compounds mainly derived from natural proteins, provide a pleasant taste for humans and exhibit a variety of biological activities, such as antioxidant and lipid-lowering properties. Marine proteins, which serve as excellent sources of umami peptides, have become a focal point of research. This review introduces the research progress on reported marine umami peptides. Firstly, it discusses the structural characteristics of umami peptides and the mechanism behind their formation to create an umami taste. It then presents several commonly used techniques for preparing and regulating umami peptides while summarizing the advantages and disadvantages of each technique. Finally, this review describes the potential application prospects for core technologies within Industry 4.0—such as molecular simulation, artificial intelligence, big data analysis, cloud computing, and blockchain technology—which could bring new opportunities for the development of marine umami peptides.

    • Umami has played an essential role in the Chinese diet since ancient times. References to umami can be found in many classical Chinese texts dating back to early history. For instance, during the Song Dynasty (960 AD to 1279 AD), Hong Lin mentioned in 'Shanjia Qing Offering' that bamboo shoots 'taste very fresh', and Yizun Zhu of the Ming Dynasty (1368 AD to 1644 AD) also noted in 'The Secret of Food Constitution' that 'pickled pork had a special umami taste'. These references reflect the historical appreciation and pursuit of umami by the Chinese people, although they were based on subjective perceptions at that time. It was not until Professor Ikeda's groundbreaking work that umami was studied as a scientific issue for the first time. He isolated glutamate from kelp (Laminaria japonica) and discovered its ability to enhance soup flavor. This unique taste, distinct from sour, sweet, bitter, and salty flavors, led Professor Ikeda to coin the term 'umami'[1,2]. However, due to limited systematic scientific research on umami at that time, it was not recognized as a basic taste by the scientific community; instead, it was considered a comprehensive taste associated with pleasure and increased appetite. It wasn't until 2002 when umami receptors (mGlu1/4, T1R1/T1R3) were discovered that umami began to be acknowledged as a fundamental taste[3,4].

      Umami, as a fundamental taste, is generated through complex physiological processes. Initially, umami substances bind to umami receptors, triggering an allosteric effect and producing gustatins. Subsequently, gustatins are further converted into electrical taste signals. Finally, taste signals are transmitted to the cerebral cortex by nerve fibers and sensed by the gustatory center[5,6]. Umami substances come in various forms, mainly including free amino acids and their salts, nucleotides and their salts, organic acids, organic bases, and umami peptides[7,8]. In recent years, umami peptides have emerged as a new form of umami substance that not only enhances the umami taste but also enriches the nutritional value of food, thus becoming a new research focus. Additionally, umami peptides can synergize with salt to enhance the salty taste and reduce the use of salt for better human health[911]. Therefore, it is highly significant to study umami peptides.

      Marine organisms have long been recognized as a crucial source of nutrients for humans, particularly high-quality dietary protein[12,13]. Oceans cover 71% of the Earth's surface area and contain vast amounts of resources. In comparison to land-sourced protein, marine protein production causes less environmental stress[14]. Various marine proteins possess a delicious and unique taste and are important raw materials for the preparation of umami peptides[15]. Furthermore, the extraction of umami peptides from marine proteins is an important method to promote the development and utilization of marine resources, which holds significant strategic importance[1618].

      Compared with the land-sourced umami peptides, marine umami peptides have their advantages: Firstly, they are more widely sourced as the area of the ocean is nearly two and a half times larger than that of the land on earth, and the diversity of species in the ocean is far greater than that on land. Secondly, marine umami peptides have higher nutritional value as they usually contain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), minerals, and trace elements such as iodine, zinc, and selenium, which are important for human health. Lastly, marine organisms are rich in umami substances, resulting in an intense umami taste with a more obvious umami-enhancing effect[1921]. However, it should be noted that current research on marine umami peptides is still in its infancy. The preparation and extraction of these peptides are traditional and lack systematic summary. Therefore, based on existing research findings, summarizing the current progress of marine umami peptides and prospecting new technologies for their application would be beneficial for subsequent research and development efforts in this field.

      In this review, the sequence and structural characteristics of reported marine umami peptides are summarized and analyzed systematically. Then, the recognition mechanism of marine umami peptides and their receptors are introduced, followed by the analysis of the signal transduction mechanism. Next, the preparation and regulation techniques of marine umami peptides are summarized. Finally, the application of Industry 4.0 technologies (molecular simulation, artificial intelligence, blockchain, big data, cloud computing) in the study of marine umami peptides are introduced and their future development is prospected. This review aims to introduce the current research of marine umami peptides and prospect the future trends of the methods applied in the subsequent study of marine umami peptides.

    • The amino acid sequence and source information of the reported marine umami peptides that have been reported were shown in Supplemental Table S1 and the distribution of the identified marine umami peptides are shown in Fig. 1. To date, 141 marine umami peptides have been identified, of which 104 are short-chain peptides (dipeptides to nonapeptides), accounting for 73.76%. The number of medium and long-chain polypeptides (decapeptides to eighteen peptides) is 37, accounting for 26.24%. It can be seen that most of the marine umami peptides are short chain peptides. This is consistent with previous studies of umami peptides from other sources[8,22,23]. Specifically, the top three types of marine umami peptides are heptapeptides (23, 16.31%), nonapeptides (17, 12.06%) and hexapeptides (14, 9.93%). The last four types of marine umami peptides are tridecanoic peptides (3, 2.13%), tetradeca peptides (3, 2.13%), hexadecapeptides (2, 1.42%) and octadecapeptides (1, 0.71%). It can be observed from this that the longer the peptide chain, the lower the likelihood of it being umami peptides. In addition, from the view of the amino acid composition of umami peptides, it is found that 85.11% of 120 marine umami peptides contain umami amino acids (glutamic acid or aspartic acid). Zhang et al.[24] summarized the amino acid composition of umami peptides and found that among all umami peptides, those containing umami amino acids accounted for 79.00%, which was lower than the 85.11% found in marine umami peptides. This suggests that marine umami peptides contain a higher proportion of umami amino acids.

      Figure 1. 

      The information of the identified marine umami peptides. (a) The distribution of the identified marine umami peptides. (b) The percentage of marine umami peptides with umami amino acid (D: aspartic acid, E: glutamic acid).

      Furthermore, the types and sequences of amino acids that compose umami peptides also have a great influence on the taste characteristics of peptides[25]. The study of Arai et al.[26] found that the umami taste can only be presented when hydrophilic amino acid is located at the C-terminus. Zhang et al.[24] proposed that the proportion of alkaline amino acids in umami peptides should not be excessively high, as alkaline amino acids are typically found at the end of the polypeptide chain. The amino acid fingerprints of the reported marine umami peptides are shown in Supplemental Fig. S1. In all identified marine peptides, the top four amino acids are glutamic acid (E), accounting for 11.41%, alanine (A) (9.41%), leucine (L) (9.32%) and aspartic acid (D) (9.22%), which are mainly umami/acidic amino acids and hydrophobic amino acids. The last four amino acids are tyrosine (Y) (1.62%), cysteine (C) (1.24%), tryptophan (W) (1.24%). According to the classification of amino acid properties, the proportion of acidic/umami amino acids is 20.63%. The data for alkaline, hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acids is 13.30%, 29.85%, and 36.23%, respectively (Fig. 2). It can be seen that among all the amino acids composing marine umami peptides, the proportion of acidic/umami amino acid is significantly higher than that of alkaline amino acids, and the proportion of hydrophobic amino acids is higher than that of hydrophilic amino acids. Regarding the order of peptide sequences, it can be observed that hydrophilic and basic amino acids are primarily distributed at the ends of the peptide chain, while hydrophobic and acidic amino acids are mainly distributed in the middle of the peptide chain.

      Figure 2. 

      The amino acid composition of the reported marine umami peptides according to the amino acid features.

      The advanced structure of marine umami peptides mainly refers to its secondary structure, including α-helix, β-folding and random curling, etc. The unique marine environment (high salt, low temperature, and high pressure) contributes to the strong stability and adaptability of the structure of marine umami peptides. For instance, the α-helix structure in marine umami peptides enhance their stability, allowing them to maintain biological activity even in extreme environments. In addition, marine umami peptides may also contain special modification groups, such as phosphate groups, sugar groups, etc., which can increase their water solubility and biological activity[27,28].

    • The taste formation mechanism of marine umami peptides is similar to that of umami peptides from other sources. Initially, umami peptides and receptors (T1R1/T1R3, mGlu1/4) recognize each other in the mouth, leading to the allosteric effects[29,30]. Once the receptor is activated, it produces the corresponding umami gustducin, which further transforms into an umami signal further. Subsequently, the signal molecules bind to their respective receptors and activate taste bud ion channels located on the cell membrane. This activation leads to the release of signal molecules from the cell and their transmission to the nerve center through the taste nerve fibers, resulting in the perception of umami (Fig. 3)[31,32].

      Figure 3. 

      Schematic diagram of the flavor mechanism of umami peptides (adapted from[32]).

    • The receptors for umami peptides are a class of membrane proteins called G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRS). Specifically, the umami peptide receptors mainly include T1R1 and T1R3. T1R1 is co-expressed with T1R3. T1R1/T1R3 heteromer in humans is primarily responsible for detecting and responding to umami substances[29,33,34]. When the umami substance interacts with the T1R1/T1R3 receptor, T1R1/T1R3 initiates signaling pathways that transmit taste information to the brain, resulting in the perception of umami taste[35]. Besides T1R1/T1R3, the umami receptors also include some metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). MGluRs are also members of the GPCRs family, responsible for the neurotransmitter glutamate. There are eight subtypes of mGluRs, which are classified into three groups based on sequence homology, signal transduction mechanisms, and pharmacological properties. The identified mGluRs umami receptors include mGluR1[36] and mGluR4[37].

    • The analysis of the recognition and transduction mechanism of marine umami peptides is an effective way to study the taste mechanism of umami peptides and mine new umami peptides. Among all umami receptors, heterodimer T1R1/T1R3 receptors are mainly distributed in the front of the tongue. They come into contact with umami substances once the umami substances get into the mouth. Other receptors (mGluR1 and mGluR4) located in the back of the tongue, which results in the lag in its contact with umami substances. Therefore, heterodimer T1R1/T1R3 receptors were identified as the best candidates for umami receptors[38]. All members of the T1R class have a similar structure, that is, the seven-spanning transmembrane region (7TM) and the N-terminal extracellular terminal region[39]. The extracellular terminal region consists of a large 'venus fly trap' (VFT) and a small cysteine-rich domain (CRD). The VFT is the main binding domain for umami ligand recognition, while the CRD mainly connects the VFT domain and the 7TM domain, which is responsible for the transmembrane transmission of the structural changes that occur after VFT ligand recognition[40].

      At present, the mechanism of the interaction between umami peptides and umami receptors has not been clarified clearly[32]. Evidence from immunocytochemical and molecular studies suggest that stimulation of umami receptor heterodimers T1R1/T1R3 by umami substances activate the G protein subunit Gα, leading to the release of the Gβγ subunit and stimulating the phospholipase PLCβ2 pathway, which produces inositol-1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG)[41,42]. The increase of Ca2+ activates the TRPM5 transient receptor potential, leading to the depolarization of taste cells. Taste cells then evoke action potentials through sodium channels and release ATP, which is converted into electrical signals to activate taste nerve fibers, thereby generating umami perception[43]. Although it has been widely recognized that umami receptor heterodimers T1R1/T1R3 stimulate the G protein subunits leading to umami signal transduction, the interaction between umami receptors and ligands and the conformational changes of the receptors after binding umami substances, remain to be examined systematically.

    • Marine umami peptides refer to peptides prepared from marine proteins with an umami taste. The processing methods for these peptides can vary due to the diverse sources of marine proteins. Common processing methods include microbial fermentation, enzymatic hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis, high-temperature processing, and solvent extraction (see Table 1).

      Table 1.  Overview of the preparation methods for marine umami peptides.

      Methods Mechanism Advantages Disadvantages Ref.
      Microbial fermentation Microbial metabolism degrades marine proteins into peptides Simple operation, safety and low cost High environmental requirements [50,87]
      Enzymatic hydrolysis Proteases specifically cleave hydrolytic peptide bonds Mild reaction conditions, green environmental protection, and high yield Poor control of the reaction leads to the production of undesirable by-products [21,50,51,54]
      Acid hydrolysis Proteins are hydrolyzed under acidic conditions Low cost and high yield Toxic substances are easily produced in the reaction process [66,100]
      High-temperature
      processing
      Protein degrades into small parts under thermal treatment Simple operation and high efficiency High energy consumption and high requirements for equipment [30,6872]
      Solvent extraction The majority of umami peptides are soluble in water Simple operation and low cost Low efficiency [44,75]
    • Microbial fermentation is a method that utilizes microbial metabolism to degrade marine proteins and obtain marine umami peptides. The vigorous metabolic reaction of microorganisms coverts macromolecular organic matter into amino acids, peptides, organic acids, and other substances[4446]. Yang et al.[47] found that the production of umami peptides based on microbial metabolism in Chouguiyu was strongly correlated with 22 protease-producing microbial genera, among which Vagococcus, Peptostreptococcus, Acinetobacter, Psychrobacter, and Enterococcus played a major role in the formation of umami peptides. Microbial fermentation has the advantages of fast speed and low cost. At the same time, microbial fermentation does not require the separation and purification of proteins and enzymes, which reduces the production cost and simplifies the operation[48]. Therefore, the use of proteolytic microorganisms to extract umami peptides from animal and plant proteins is more cost-effective and practical than traditional enzymatic hydrolysis. However, microbial fermentation requires high environmental hygiene and is easily contaminated by other bacteria during the fermentation process. As a green and environmentally friendly method for the preparation of marine umami peptides, microbial fermentation has great potential for umami peptide preparation. Future research should focus on the screening of highly resistant strains to achieve more application prospects.

    • Enzymatic hydrolysis is one of the commonly used methods for the preparation of marine umami peptides. Enzymes can break down proteins into peptides with different molecular weights and free amino acids, which are key umami compounds[49]. Various enzymes such as complex protease[50], pepsin, trypsin[5154], flavourzyme, papain[21], chymotrypsin[52,53] are commonly employed in enzymatic hydrolysis. The reaction conditions for enzymatic hydrolysis are mild, safe and efficient, easily controlled, and do not produce toxic and harmful substances. This makes it a key technology for developing seafood seasoning[55,56]. Studies have shown that sequential hydrolysis of endonuclease and exonuclease can improve efficiency, reduce bitterness, and enhance the umami taste[57,58]. Flavor protease contains both endo-cut enzyme and exo-cut enzyme activities. These enzymes effectively degrade exposed hydrophobic groups and hydrolyze certain flavor precursor substances to facilitate the formation of high-quality flavor products[59]. To enhance proteolysis and prepare good flavor umami peptides, many researchers have utilized double enzyme hydrolysis methods. For example, Deng et al.[21] prepared and identified umami peptides from Trachinotus ovatus using enzymatic hydrolysis with papain and flavourzyme. Additionally, a stepwise dual-enzymatic hydrolysis process using alkaline and flavor protease was employed to prepare umami enzymatic hydroxylate from squid processing by-products[60].

    • Under acidic conditions, proteins can undergo hydrolysis reactions to produce peptides or amino acids[61]. Acid hydrolysis is characterized by its simple process, low cost and high-efficiency, making it a widely used method for protein hydrolysis[6264]. Hydrochloric acid is often used to hydrolyze food proteins to produce umami substances for food flavoring[61,65]. However, during the acid hydrolysis process of preparing marine umami peptides, toxic and carcinogenic substances such as chloropropanol could be generated as by-products[66]. Compared with enzymatic hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis requires more severe reaction conditions[67], which has led to its gradual replacement by other methods.

    • Many researchers have utilized high-temperature methods for the preparation of water extracts containing umami peptides[6872]. During the heating process, proteins degrade into smaller components[73,74]. Wang et al. obtained 29 peptide fragments through high-temperature water boiling combined with gel ultrafiltration and gel filtration chromatography and identified four of them as umami peptides[75]. Additionally, three umami peptides were isolated and purified from Leccinum extremiorientale using high-temperature cooking[76]. Alim et al. separated and purified 15 types of umami peptides from thermally treated yeast extract, with an optimum reaction temperature of 110 °C for umami peptide generation[77]. High-temperature processing is a common method for extracting nutrients from foods; therefore, the process of preparing umami peptides by this method is simple and suitable for industrial production. However, it is important to strictly control the temperature and heating time to avoid excessive hydrolysis and denaturation of the protein.

    • Because most umami peptides are water-soluble, water-based solvent extraction is commonly used for their extraction. Hot water extraction is a traditional method for obtaining umami peptides. Four umami peptides were identified from Lactarius volemus aqueous extracts, with one peptide (EVAEALDAPKTT) having a very low umami threshold of only 0.0625 mg/mL[78]. To enhance extraction efficiency, solvent extraction is often combined with high-temperature treatment, homogenization, ultrasonic treatment, and other methods[61]. Wang et al. extracted proteins and peptides from Takifugu flavidus using homogenization and a water-based solvent extraction method, resulting in the identification of four peptides with umami taste[79]. The process of solvent extraction is straightforward and does not require expensive equipment. However, it has the disadvantage of high energy consumption and long extraction time[61]. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in natural green extraction solvents, such as aqueous two-phase and deep eutectic solvent (DES), for extracting bioactive substances, making it a research hotspot[80,81]. These solvents have also been applied to the extraction of marine umami peptides. For example, DES composed of glucose, sucrose, and water was used to enhance the umami-enhancing capacity of pea protein hydrolysate[82]. Although there are currently few reports on the application of natural green extraction solvents, their potential in the extraction of marine umami peptides can be seen based on their extensive use in extracting bioactive substances[8386].

    • During the process of preparing marine umami protein and peptides products, it is inevitable that some unique substances from marine organisms will be incorporated into them, such as ω-3PUFA and astaxanthin. However, these substances will produce many unpleasant flavors after oxidation. Moreover, umami peptides may be decomposed by temperature, pH, and other conditions during processing or storage, leading to a significant reduction in their umami taste. Therefore, it is necessary to use embedding and adding amino acids in the actual production process to regulate the umami taste and maintain the stability of these products.

    • Embedding is a technique used to immobilize active substances (such as drugs, enzymes, proteins, etc.) in a carrier material. This technique serves various purposes including protecting the active substance, prolonging its duration of action, improving stability, and controlling the release rate[87]. In the food industry, embedding can also be utilized to immobilize food additives or condiments in carriers to achieve specific release characteristics. Currently, spray drying and freeze drying are commonly employed methods for embedding umami peptides[88]. The process of microencapsulation through spray drying and freeze drying involves preparing a mixed emulsion of heartwood and wall material first, followed by spraying or freeze-drying the emulsion in a desiccator[89]. While these methods effectively prevent the oxidation of umami peptides and their reaction with other substances which could weaken their flavor profile, they do have drawbacks such as high energy consumption and low automation control level[90].

    • The amino acid addition method is a technique to regulate the umami taste by adding pure amino acids or amino acids mixture into the umami protein or peptide products. These amino acids or amino acids mixtures can cooperate with other flavorful peptides, nucleotides, and other substances contained in food to further enhance umami taste. Fu et al.[91] improved the umami taste of the umami peptides in fish head soup by adding cysteine. Similarly, Ruan et al.[92] maintained the umami taste of soy sauce by adding hydrolysate from low-value fish. The addition of amino acids is a direct method for increasing the umami flavor of products. While this process is simple, it requires exploration and optimization of the amount of added amino acids in the early laboratory stages, which may also result in additional economic costs being incurred at that time.

    • Recently, various global challenges, including global warming, increasing global population, overfishing, and other ecosystem damage, make it necessary for human beings to further innovate, study, and carry out sustainable development and utilization of marine resources. Therefore, Industry 4.0 technology has received great attention in recent years to improve efficiency and productivity and enhance sustainability[93,94]. Industry 4.0, categorized according to different stages of industrial development represents an era in which information technology is utilized to drive transformation within the industry. The artificial intelligence, big data analysis, Internet of Things, blockchain, smart sensors, robotic and cyber-physical systems are some of the technologies featured in Industry 4.0[95,96], and emerges as a way to improve the competitiveness of marine food[97,98]. Industry 4.0 technology has been used widely in the simulation of the interaction between the marine umami peptides and their receptors, the rapid screening and structure prediction of marine umami peptides, and the establishment and sharing of marine umami peptides database[99101]. Furthermore, Industry 4.0 technology holds significant potential for the collection and processing of characteristic data and traceability analysis of marine umami peptides. This section introduces and prospects the application of Industry 4.0 technologies (molecular simulation, artificial intelligence, big data, cloud computing, and blockchain) in the study of marine umami peptides (Fig. 4), aiming to promote their application in the subsequent scientific research of marine umami proteins and peptides.

      Figure 4. 

      The application prospect of Industry 4.0 in marine umami peptides.

    • Molecular simulation (MS) technology is a method that uses computers to simulate the behavior and properties of molecular systems at the atomic or molecular level[102]. MS technology has been applied to the study of marine umami peptides, mainly including the following aspects: (1) Interaction simulation: the interaction between marine umami peptides and other molecules (such as receptors and enzymes) can be simulated, and the mechanism of action and binding mode in vivo can be predicted, which is helpful for studying the biological activity and pharmacological effects of marine umami peptides. The interaction between shrimp umami peptide and its receptor was simulated through homology modeling and molecular docking and the results indicated that amino acid residues Arg151, Asp147 and Gln52 might be the key binding sites[103]. Five umami peptides were obtained from Meretrix lusoria, and explored the interaction between these umami peptides with T1R1/T1R3 by molecular simulation technology[19]. The results indicated that the peptides could enter the binding pocket in the Venus flytrap domain of the T1R3 cavity, wherein Asp196 and Glu128 may play key roles in the sensation of umami taste. Moreover, hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions are important interaction forces. (2) Structural prediction: molecular simulation technology can help researchers to predict and simulate the molecular structure of marine umami peptides, including three-dimensional structure, conformation and stability analysis of proteins, peptides, and other molecules, so as to help understand their functions and biological activities. Bu et al.[87] studied the characterization and structure-activity relationship of novel umami peptides isolated from Thai fish sauce by molecular simulation technology combined with quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR). The results indicated that the umami peptide chains were rotated and folded obviously, and hydroxyphenyl group of the N-terminal tyrosine residue side chain rotated significantly, which may enhance the umami taste. Although molecular simulation technology can effectively simulate the structural change process of biological macromolecules dynamically, the internal structure of biological systems, with uncertainties that change over time, is much more complex than imagined[104]. Therefore, the simulation process of biomacromolecules also has certain limitations, which require the improvement of computing software and hardware as much as possible to meet the needs of solving practical problems.

    • Artificial intelligence (AI) is the technology of creating and applying intelligent machines or software that can mimic, augment, and extend human intelligence. The research field of artificial intelligence covers robotics, language recognition, image recognition, natural language processing, etc. The goal is to make computers have the ability to think and make decisions like humans[105,106]. The application of AI in marine umami peptides mainly includes the following aspects: (1) Discovering new marine umami peptides involves the use of advanced techniques such as machine learning and deep learning. By analyzing large quantities of known peptides, researchers can model and predict their structure and taste. This approach holds great potential for advancing our understanding of marine umami peptides and their applications in various fields. Meanwhile, virtual screening combined with AI could be used to determine their biological activities and taste characteristics, helping to accelerate the discovery of new marine peptides. Zhang et al.[107] investigated an interpretable BERT-based AI model to realize rapid screening of new umami peptides with a computational accuracy of 93.23%. Qi et al.[108] developed a novel peptide sequence-based umami peptide predictor, namely Umami-MRNN, which was based on multi-layer perceptron and recurrent neural network. The independent tests have shown that Umami-MRNN achieved an accuracy of 90.5%. (2) Prediction of allosteric effects can be achieved by integrating and analyzing a substantial amount of experimental data, in combination with methodologies such as machine learning and network analysis. This approach allows for the elucidation of the mechanism of action and signaling pathways associated with marine umami peptides. This helps to understand the function of marine umami peptides in cells and provides a theoretical basis for further application and development. Cui et al.[109] predicted the conserved sites and recognition mechanisms of T1R1 through ensemble docking combined with machine learning. The results indicated that residues 107S-109S, 148S-154T, and 247F-249A mainly form hydrogen bonding contacts, which might be the key binding sites during the sensation of umami. The binding processing of two umami peptides (MTLERPW and MNLHLSF) with T1R1 was predicated by Li et al.[110] through phage display combined with AI, and the key binding sites (MW-7 and MF-7) in the VFT were identified. (3) Utilizing AI technology, the analysis of large-scale marine umami peptide sequences can be conducted through bioinformatics techniques such as sequence alignment, structure prediction, and functional annotation. This approach is beneficial for predicting the characteristics of marine umami peptides and establishing a reference threshold for their properties. An AI system for taste analysis based on a graph neural network was developed by Lee et al.[33], which could predict the taste threshold of marine umami peptides based on their structure, providing a new method for the perception research of marine umami peptides. AI relies on a large amount of high-quality data for training and verification, with the database serving as the foundation for AI model testing and training[111]. AI relies on a large amount of high-quality data for training and verification, with the database serving as the foundation for AI model testing and training[111]. Therefore, AI requires a substantial volume of accurate data and computational resources to train, optimize, and support research related to umami peptides. The collection of such data has become a limiting factor in the application of AI in the development of umami peptides. However, as the model improves and more data is accumulated, AI will create new opportunities for the advancement of marine umami peptides.

    • Big data technology is a data processing technique that utilizes computer systems and network technology to process massive amounts of data. It aims to extract useful information from the data through association analysis and prediction. Big data technology is characterized by its volume, velocity, variety, and value. The primary function of big data is to record, describe, and predict various phenomena[112114]. In the context of marine umami peptides, the application of big data encompasses several key aspects. Firstly, it involves the establishment and sharing of databases. By integrating and sharing characteristic data related to marine umami peptides, a specialized database can be developed. This database is a valuable resource for studying marine umami peptides, ultimately expediting research processes and fostering collaboration within the field. Gradinaru et al.[115] and Rojas et al.[116] collected a large number of characteristic information of umami substances through big data technology and established two open access umami databases (PlantMolecularTasteDB and ChemTastesDB), which greatly facilitated the subsequent research on marine umami peptides. Secondly, by utilizing big data analytics, marine biological scientists and researchers can effectively process large-scale marine biological data to gain a better understanding of the genomic, proteomic, and metabolomic features of marine organisms. This will enable them to explore the biosynthetic pathways and properties of umami peptides[117]. Finally, the promotion and marketing of marine umami peptide products can benefit from the application of big data technology for consumer behavior analysis. By analyzing consumer data and market trends, a better understanding of consumer needs and preferences can be obtained, which in turn can guide the promotion and marketing strategies of marine umami peptide products. This approach allows for a more targeted and effective marketing strategy that is based on empirical evidence and insights into consumer behavior[118]. From a functional perspective, the application of big data in marine umami peptides primarily involves the collection of various relevant data. Therefore, the challenges of applying big data in marine umami peptides lie in the capacity, source, and quality of the data[119].

    • Cloud computing technology is an internet-based computing model, which provides a variety of computing services through the network, including storage, database, software, analysis and processing capabilities. The application of cloud computing in the development and utilization of marine umami peptides are still in their early stages. The application might include the following aspects: (1) Data storage and processing: the study of marine umami peptides requires a large amount of data storage and processing, including gene data and protein data of marine biological samples. Cloud computing can provide efficient data storage and processing capabilities to help researchers quickly analyze the components and characteristics of marine umami peptides. (2) Virtual experiments and simulations: through the cloud computing platform, researchers can conduct virtual experiments and simulations to explore the biological activities, pharmacological effects and other characteristics of marine umami peptides, to accelerate research progress. Although the function of cloud computing has greatly facilitated the discovery of new marine umami peptides, the nature of cloud computing also brings challenges for cloud computing applications[120,121]. The main challenges of cloud computing in marine umami peptide is data security[19]. Because the cloud computing provider has complete control over all operations, malicious detection, service manipulation and economic denial-of-service attacks by the provider are the potential threats of data being damaged or breached[121].

    • Blockchain technology is a distributed database-based technology that is capable of recording and storing transaction data. It possesses the characteristics of decentralization, non-tampering, and transparency. At its core, blockchain technology consists of a chain structure composed of a series of blocks, with each block containing a specific amount of transaction data. The security and consistency of the data are ensured through encryption algorithms and consensus mechanisms[122]. Blockchain technology has a wide range of applications in the downstream management of marine umami peptides. Firstly, through the use of blockchain technology, it is possible to achieve full traceability of marine umami peptide products. This means that every stage in the production, processing, and transportation of each batch of products can be recorded on the blockchain. As a result, consumers can access detailed information about the product such as its source, production date, and production process by scanning the two-dimensional code on the product or querying relevant information. This increased transparency and credibility serves to enhance consumer confidence in the product[123]. Secondly, the authenticity of marine umami peptide products can be verified using blockchain technology. Each batch of products is assigned a unique blockchain identity, allowing consumers to verify the product's authenticity by scanning the two-dimensional code or entering relevant information. This ensures that the purchased product is genuine[124]. Thirdly, supply chain management: Blockchain technology has the potential to enhance the supply chain management of marine umami peptide products[125]. By integrating all aspects of the supply chain into a blockchain network, real-time monitoring and transparent management can be achieved. This reduces information asymmetry and risk within the supply chain while improving efficiency and reliability[126]. The high-cost problem is a significant challenge when applying blockchain technology in the marine umami industry. Embedding blockchain technology into the marine umami peptide traceability system requires a substantial investment of both time and money for participants. As the complexity of the blockchain increases, so does the need for additional computing power to confirm more blocks, resulting in higher power consumption[127]. Furthermore, as the number of transactions within the marine umami peptide tracking system grows, so does the volume of data. This increase in data creates challenges related to storage and computation, ultimately reducing the capacity scale of the system and increasing synchronization time for new users[127,128].

    • As a treasure house of natural resources, the ocean contains a huge amount of marine proteins. The preparation of umami peptides from these marine proteins is an important way to utilize ocean resources. This review summarized the amino acid composition, characteristics, and sequence information of the reported 141 marine umami peptides. Additionally, the taste mechanism and preparation methods of marine umami peptides were introduced. According to the current research results, most marine peptides are composed of four to ten amino acids and abundant in umami/hydrophobic amino acids. The preparation methods of marine umami peptides include microbial fermentation, enzymatic hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis, high-temperature processing, and solvent extraction. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, better results may be obtained by using the combined methods. At the same time, embedding methods and amino acid addition were commonly used to adjust umami taste, which had the advantages of simple operation and was suitable for industrial production. Finally, the existing ongoing projects regarding the application of Industry 4.0 technology in marine umami peptides were introduced and the future trends of its application prospected. Based on the current state of research, several Industry 4.0 technologies (molecular simulation, artificial intelligence, and big data) have been widely utilized in simulating the interaction between the marine umami peptides and their receptors, rapidly screening and predicting the structure of marine umami peptides, as well as establishing and sharing a database of marine umami peptides. The use of cloud computing and blockchain is still in its early stages. Prospective applications may include the collection and processing of characteristic data, traceability analysis of marine umami peptides etc. Essentially, the core technology of Industry 4.0 primarily serves as information storage and data processing tools that greatly enhance researchers' work efficiency. Furthermore, in order to better understand the properties and applied research of marine umami peptides, it is necessary to encourage and stimulate more investment in biotechnology to promote the sustainable development and utilization of these marine resources in the future.

    • The authors confirm their contribution to the paper as follows: data curation: Hu D, Zheng Z, Liang B, Jin Y, Shi C, Chen Q, Wei L; writing-original draft: Hu D, Zheng Z; writing-review & editing: Dong X, Lu Y; conceptualization: Jin Y, Shi C, Lu Y; literature arrangement: Chen Q, Wei L; software, investigation: Li D, Li C; project administration, resources: Ye J, Dai Z; funding acquisition: Lu Y. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

    • All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

      • The authors are grateful to the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2023YFD2100203), the Natural Science Fund of Zhejiang Province (LQ22C200008) and Basic research funds for provincial colleges and universities (FR2401ZD).

      • The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

      • Authors contributed equally: Di Hu, Zhenxiao Zheng

      • Supplemental Table S1 The amino acid sequence and source information of the reported marine umami peptides.
      • Supplemental Fig. S1 The amino acid fingerprints of the reported marine umami peptides (a) dipeptide ~ hexapeptide; (b) hexapeptide ~ octapeptide; (c) octapeptide ~ dodecapeptide; (d) tridecanoicpeptide ~ octadecapeptide.
      • Copyright: © 2024 by the author(s). Published by Maximum Academic Press on behalf of China Agricultural University, Zhejiang University and Shenyang Agricultural University. This article is an open access article distributed under Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
    Figure (4)  Table (1) References (128)
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    Hu D, Zheng Z, Liang B, Jin Y, Shi C, et al. 2024. Recent progress and prospects in production and identification of umami peptides from marine proteins. Food Innovation and Advances 3(3): 256−267 doi: 10.48130/fia-0024-0024
    Hu D, Zheng Z, Liang B, Jin Y, Shi C, et al. 2024. Recent progress and prospects in production and identification of umami peptides from marine proteins. Food Innovation and Advances 3(3): 256−267 doi: 10.48130/fia-0024-0024

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